Jims    i^'f' 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

University  of  California. 


Class 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arcinive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


littp://www.archive.org/details/broadlinesinscieOOhodsricli 


BROAD   LINES 

IN 

SCIENCE   TEACHING 


IN 


BROAD  LINES  IN 
SCIENCE   TEACHING 


EDITED  BY 

F.    HODSON,    Ph.D.,  HiSc. 

SENIOR  SCIENCE   MASTER  OF   BEDALES  SCHOOL 

WITH   AN   INTRODUCTION   BY 

Prof.  M.   E.   SADLER,   M.A.,   LL.D. 

ETC.,    ETC. 

PROFESSOR  OF  THE   HISTORY  AND  ADMINISTR/^foN  OF  EDUCATION, 

VICTORIA   UNIVERSITY  OF   MANCHESTER 


THE    MACMILLAN    CO. 

NEW  YORK 

1910 


v\ 


PREFACE 

THESE  papers  deal  with  the  teaching 
of  science  to  boys  and  girls  of  second- 
ary-school age.  The  editor's  object 
has  been  to  cover  a  wide  field,  to 
achieve,  through  variety  of  the  contributors' 
experience,  variety  of  presentation,  and  so  to 
convince  the  reader  of  the  many-sided  human 
value  of  science  in  modern  education.  If  com- 
pleteness can  hardly  be  attained  in  so  small  a 
compass,  obvious  gaps  have,  it  is  hoped,  been 
filled.  The  various  writers  have  drawn  attention 
to  requirements  which  in  the  ideal  case  should 
be  satisfied :  correlation  between  subjects  and 
between  stages,  claims  of  rival  departments  of 
scientific  study,  claims  of  heuristic  or  other 
methods  of  teaching,  claims  of  practical  applica- 
tion to  health,  home,  and  morals  ;  and  the  bear- 
ing of  scientific  ideas  in  neighbouring  branches 
of  learning  has  also  been  touched  upon.  It  has 
not  been  shown  in  detail  how  far  such  ideas  and 
requirements  are  being  worked  out  and  met  in 
individual  schools  or  classes  of  schools. 


197640 


vi       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

Readers  who  wish  to  know  something  of  this 
side  of  the  matter  may  turn,  in  the  first  place, 
to  a  report  which  has  appeared  during  the 
passage  of  this  work  through  the  press. ^  This 
report,  edited  by  Mr.  Latter  of  Charterhouse,^ 
begins  with  an  interesting  retrospect,  dealing 
with  the  development  of  science  teaching  at  four 
well-known  Public  Schools.  Then  follows  an 
analysis  of  the  replies  received  from  fifty-six 
schools,  in  answer  to  a  circular  of  questions, 
touching  on  many  points  of  teaching  and  organi- 
sation ;  and  the  report  concludes  with  appendices 
giving  in  full  a  number  of  courses  of  work 
actually  in  use.  It  is  shown  that  individual 
differences  are  considerable  :  and  this  is  to  be 
expected  and  welcomed.  We  may  hope  with 
Mr.  Latter  that  personal  interest  and  enthusiasm 
will  never  be  sacrificed  to  a  rigid  uniformity  :  in 
this  spirit  the  present  set  of  papers  has  been 
collected. 

F.  H. 

September^  1909. 

^  Board  of  Education.  Report  on  Science  Teaching  in  Public 
Schools  represented  on  the  Association  of  Public  School  Science 
Masters^  1909. 

2  See  Paper  IV,  "  Biology  in  Schools." 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION:    By  PROFESSOR  SADLER        /'^^j  xv-xxxvi 

I 

THE   PLACE   OF   SCIENCE   IN   THE   SCHOOL 
CURRICULUM 

By  J.  H.  BADLEY,  M.A. 

Headmaster  of  Bedales  School ;  Author  of  various  papers  on 

educational  subjects. 

Spencer's  fancy  picture— Justification  for  parents'  utilitarianism — 
A  place  left  for  the  humanities — Threefold  educational  value  of 
science — Present  compromise  unsatisfactory — Need  of  a  wide 
preliminary  course — Place  of  science  in  general  culture — Place 
of  the  science  group  in  the  curriculum,  before  the  age  of 
sixteen  —  Specialisation  afterwards  —  Two  points  of  method  : 
training  rather  than  facts,  and  work  not  to  be  divorced  from 
daily  life         .  .  .  .  .         Pages  1-15 

II 

THE  SCOPE   OF   NATURE-STUDY 

By  EDWARD  THOMAS 

Author  of  "  The  Life  of  Richard  Jefferies"  "  The  Heart  of 

England;'  "  Horce  Solitaries;'  etc. 

Three  determining  causes :  romantic  revival,  triumph  of  science, 
growth  of  towns — Literature  sends  us  to  nature  for  happiness — 
Towns  send  us  for  health — Science  for  knowledge — Modern 
poets  and  the  great  religious  books  only  understood  by  those 
in  touch  with  nature — Tolstoi — Value  of  knowledge  of  nature — 
Must  include  pure  brain-work — Aim  is  to  widen  culture — Mark 
Pattison's  experience — The  sense  of  unity — Conclusion      Pages  16-22 


viii      BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE   TEACHING 

III 

THE   TEACHING   OF   NATURE-STUDY 

By  CLOTILDE  VON  WYSS 
London  Day  Training  College  ;  Editor  of  "  School 
Nature  Study.'''' 

Evolutionary  repetition  in  individual — Early  stages  of  science  utili- 
tarian— Nature-study  refers  to  the  earliest  phase — Teacher  must 
attend  to  general  attitude  of  normal  child  and  primitive  man — 
Wonder  and  curiosity — Animistic — Connection  by  contiguity  not 
by  logic — Seasonal  aspects — Three  stages  between  ages  of  seven 
and  twelve — (i)  "Making  acquaintance" — (2)  "Activity" — 
(3)  "Desire  to  investigate" — Examples  of  work  at  this  stage 
-—Conclusion  ....       Pages  23-36 

IV 

BIOLOGY    IN    SCHOOLS 

By   OSWALD   LATTER,    M.A. 

Senior  Science  Master  at  Charterhouse  ;  Author  of 

**  The  Natural  History  of  some  Common  Animals,*^  "Practical 

Nature  Study  for  Schools,"  etc. 


Apparent  aversion — Dearth  of  teachers — Schools  must  widen  their  ; 

ground — Utilitarian    side    of  chemistry   and    physics — Coming  < 
market  value  of  biology — An  excellent  hobby — Begin  early — 

Method  of  question  and  answer — Seasonal  studies — Heuristic —  '. 

Close  study  of  everyday  creatures  and  plants — Small  plots  and  1 

fresh  and  salt   marshes — Insects,   birds — Human  physiology —  ■ 

Evolutionary  lines  at  sixteen  to  seventeen — Compound   micro-  i 

scope   a   necessity — Parker's    course    suggested — Lectures    and  ' 
reading — School  museum              .                .                .       Pages  37-48       i 

V 

THE  TEACHING   OF   HYGIENE  \ 

By  ALICE  RAVENHILL  j 

Late  Lecturer  on  Hygiene^  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire  ;  \ 

Lecturer y  London  University  Board ;  Author  of  ^^  Practical  Hygiene.^'        \ 

Education   a    process  of   adjustment — Hygiene — Position   in   pro- 
gramme— Objections  to  direct  method — Presentation  as  signifi-  \ 
cance  of  daily  doings — Continuous  and   progressive — Methods 
of  teaching — Work  of  Miss  Abrahall— Correlational  work  in  J 


CONTENTS  ix 

secondary  schools — In  geography  and  history — In  the  laboratory 
— Girls*  courses — Economics  of  health — Superstructural — Man's 
place  in  nature — Inheritance  and  environment — Ethical  and  social 
aspects — Parallel  scheme  for  boys  and  girls — The  training  of  the 
teacher  .....      Pages  49-63 


VI 

THE  PLACE   OF   HYPOTHESES   IN   SCIENCE 
TEACHING 

By  T.  PERCY  NUNN,  M.A.,  D.Sc. 

Vice- Principal  of  the  London  Day  Training  College  ;  Author  of 

"  The  Aims  of  Scientific  Method^'^  and  other  papers. 

Story  of  Sir  W.  Hamilton — Schoolboys'  questions  about  the  **  ether  " 
— Huxley  :  "like  effects  imply  like  causes  " — The  reality  of  ether, 
ions,  energy — Two  types  of  scientist,  the  believer  and  the  critic — 
Success  of  a  hypothesis  leads  to  a  less  cautious  feeling  about  it 
— Mach — Pearson — The  critical  position — Teacher  must  take  up 
a  position — May  regret  destructive  consequences  of  criticism — 
"Optimism  with  a  difference" — Example  from  consideration  of 
molecules — A  suggested  "molar"  treatment  of  molecules — 
Sequence  of  the  chemical  experiments  involved —  Other  cases  for 
analogous  treatment       ....       Pages  64-79 


VII 

THE   CLAIMS   OF   "RESEARCH"   WORK   AND 
EXAMINATIONS 

By  FRED  HODSON,  B.Sc,  Ph.D. 

[editor] 

Senior  Science  Master  oj  Bedales  School,  Petersfield. 

Three  stages  of  school  science — The  middle  stage — Choice  of  subjects 
— Heuristic  treatment— Liberally  but  discreetly  employed — Read- 
ing and  discussion — High  accuracy  not  attained — The  later  stage 
— Examinations  and  their  nature — Revision  and  expansion — No 
longer  time  for  heuristic  plan — Not  a  disadvantage — Supplement- 
ing by  free-time  work — Plunging — The  escape  from  accumulated 
knowledge — Youthful  achievement — The  few  a  stimulus  to  the 
many — Actual  work  done — Conclusion  .  .       P^^S^s  80-92 


X        BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING  , 

j 
VIII 

SCHOOL   MATHEMATICS   IN   RELATION   TO  < 

SCHOOL  SCIENCE  \ 

By  T.  JAMES  GARSTANG,  M.A. 

Senior  Mathematical  Master  of  Bedales  School ;  Author  of  \ 
various  papers  on  mathematical  teaching. 

School  mathematics  cannot  be  limited   to    deductive    processes —  | 

Young's  definition  of  "elementary,"  imperfect — Some  views  of  ''\ 

nature   of   science  and  its   method — Boole — Pearson — Mach —  \ 

Language  and  notation — Babbage — Conclusions   in  regard   to  \ 
teaching — Personal    experience    to   awaken    thought — Supreme 

power  of  an  adequate  notation — Historical  order — Descartes-  \ 

Newton — Synthesis  of  algebra  and  geometry — Classroom  pro-  ' 

cedure — First   stage   an   introduction    to   graphical   methods —  j 

Applications  in  physical  laboratory — Table   of  cases— Second  ] 

stage  :  notion  of  a  limit — Simple  curves  for  application — Third  i 

stage  :  notation,  integration  as  an  inverse  operation — Function  j 

found  for  an  experimental  curve — Fourth  stage  :  tt  by  Gregory's  \ 
series — Conclusions  from  teaching  experience                .     Pages  93-107   ! 


IX 

CO-ORDINATION   OF   PHYSICS  TEACHING   IN 

SCHOOL  AND  COLLEGE:   WITH   SPECIAL 

REFERENCE   TO   ELECTRICITY 

AND  MAGNETISM 

By  ALFRED  W.  PORTER,  B.Sc. 

Fellow  and  Assistant  Professor  of  Physics  in  University  of  London 

{University  College),  Examiner  in  Physics  to  University  {Medical)^ 

Royal  Colleges  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  etc.  etc. 

Existing  overlapping — Comparison  with  Germany— Precarious  foot- 
hold of  science  in  some  schools — More  work  may  be  transferred 
to  schools — Or  the  leaving  age  may  possibly  be  lowered — 
Armstrong — Schools  physics  for  medicals  inadequate — Elementary 
work  in  general — Should  be  no  formal  course  of  electricity,  etc., 
in  schools — Mathematics — Mechanics — Electrostatics  first — Rela- 
tion to  modern  theory — Value  of  informal  experimenting — Not 
only  heuristic — But  no  dogmatism — Case  of  exceptional  boys — 
Breadth  of  view  required  .  .  .  Pages  108- 121 


CONTENTS 


GEOGRAPHY  : 

By  J.  H.  N.  STEPHENSON,  M.A.  ^ 

Headmaster  of  Letchworth  School ;  Author  of  **  The  Elements  --_ 

of  Geography. ^^  \ 

Claims  of  Geography — Concentration  in  early  education — Method  ^ 

and  aim — Relation  to  science  teaching — Geography  to  begin  at  \ 

home  ? — Some   disadvantages — Nature-study  important — Study  \ 

of  life  on  the  earth — Man  in  relation  to  nature — Anthropology  \ 

and  economics — Regional   geography   an  application  of   prin-  = 

ciples  to  particular  areas — Plea  for  advanced  work — Nature  under  i 

man's  control — Essay- writing         .                .                 .  Pages  122-134  i 

XI  \ 
SCIENCE   IN   THE   TEACHING   OF   HISTORY  : 

By  F.  M.  POWICKE,  M.A.  1 
Fellow  of  Merton  College,  Oxford ;  Professor  of  Modern  History 

in  the  University  of  Belfast.  \ 

History-Science  parallel — How  reveal  the  laws  of  human  action  ? —  ' 

Science  and  law  in  history — Too  much  time  given  to  certain  ; 

causal  relations — Illustration — Value  of  imagination — This  con-  i 

trolled  by  scientific  method — Illustration — Teaching  of  young  1 
children — History    shows    the   fullness    of   life — Method — Set 

teaching  may  begin  late — Tests  of  success — What  to  teach —  \ 

Conclusion      .....  Pages  135-145  ^ 

XII  \ 

ECONOMIC  SCIENCE  IN   SECONDARY  i 
SCHOOLS 

By  AUGUSTUS  KAHN,  M.A.  \ 

Headmaster  of  the  County  Secondary  School,  Holloway^  London^  \ 

and  Lecturer  on  Commercial  Methods  iti  the  ' 

University  of  London.  \ 

Economics  in   arithmetic — Bearing   of  economics  on  citizenship—  ,j 
Course  of  lessons  from  arithmetic — Interest — Money — Banking  < 
system — Stocks    and    shares — Companies — Higher     course    for  \ 
special  boys — Retail  trading — Examples:  effect  of  various  oper- 
ations on  the  Bank  of  England — Syllabus  of  the  course  proposed  ] 

Pages  146-157  1 

\ 


xii      BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE   TEACHING  \ 

XIII  I 

DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  \ 

By  ARTHUR   SMITHELLS,   F.R.S.  j 

Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  University  of  Leeds.  ] 

Distinguished    from   domestic   arts — Effect   depends    more    on    the 

teacher  than  the  subject — Science  needed — But  has  been  detached —  ' 

Cases  in  point — Application  to  hygiene — Scientific  cookery  will  i 

achieve  economies — And  satisfy  an  intellectual  appetite — Physics  i 

and  chemistry  from  the  kitchen  standpoint — Chemistry  of  foods —  \ 
Yeast — Sterilisation — Heller's  syllabus          .                .  Pages  158-166   ; 

XIV  i 

THE  TEACHING  OF  CHEMISTRY   IN 

TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS  ^ 

By  henry  GARRETT,  B.Sc,   Ph.D.  ^ 
H.  M.  Inspector  of  Schools,  Ireland. 

Character  of  work  done  in  universities,   in  secondary  schools,  and  j 

in  technical  schools  —  Sub-groups  among   technical  students  —  ' 

Three    classes    of    student — Course    for    industrials — Now    too  j 

academic — Method  through  applications  is  from  familiar  to  un-  ; 

familiar,  and  therefore  sound — First  year :  chemistry  with  physics  ) 

and   mathematics — Second   year  :    inorganic  chemistry   and   one  • 

technical  class — Third  year  :  organic  chemistry  and  one  technical  \ 
class — Fourth  year  :  benzene  derivatives  and  special  class — Details 

of  the  general  course,  reference  to  applications — Special  work  for  1 
plumbers  and  painters    ....  Pages  167-177 

XV  , 

HOW  THE  SCHOOL   MAY  HELP  AGRICULTURE    j 

By  E.   W.    read,   M.A.  1 

Headmaster  of  the  Sutherland  Technical  Institute,  Golspie,  N.B.  \ 

How  the  practical  man  criticises  agricultural  science — The  points  of  | 

business-efficiency  forgotten  by  the  lecturer — Education  of  future  i 
small  farmer — Education  will  not  save  a  farmer  if  he  does  not 

possess    certain    qualities — But    will     widen    his    outlook — And  \ 

teach  him  what  qualities  he  needs  to  cultivate — Special   schools  j 
probably  needed — Curriculum — English,    with  history   and  geo- 
graphy— Mathematics  and  science — Manual  work — Gardening  and 

forestry — Visits    to    farms  —  Correlation    of   work  —  Authority  i 

appointed  must  study  the  needs  of  different  districts — Importance  i 
of  women  in  country  life,  education  of  girls     .             .   Pages  178-187   5 


CONTENTS  xiii 

XVI 

ENGINEERING 

By   an   associate  OF   THE   INSTITUTION   OF 

CIVIL   ENGINEERS 

Division    into  two    classes,    directing    and  rank    and    file— Ranks 

— Should  be  no  unskilled  labour  between  elementary  school  and 

age    of   sixeen — Pro-apprentice    schools — Curriculum — Study  of 

English — Correlation  in  mathematics,  mechanics,  and  handwork — 

Defects  of  secondary-school  course  up  to  sixteen — Sir  W.  White's 

report — What   is   done  in  public  schools — Competition  between 

the  general   educational   and    the   special   technical    interests — 

Conclusion       .....  Pages  188-198 

XVII 

SCIENCE   TEACHING   AND  THE   TRAINING 

OF    THE   AFFECTIONS 

By  SIDNEY  UNWIN,  B.Sc. 

Hovsemaster  of  Bedales  School,  Petersfield. 

What  parents  should  do — Schoolmaster  must  gain  the  same  affectionate 
relation — Course  of  life  on  the  school  estate — Seasons — Three 
suggested  divisions  of  science  work :  class  work,  farm  and 
garden,  etc.,  voluntary  work — Ordinary  class  work:  animal 
world,  leading  up  to  study  of  man — Economics — Practical  work  : 
sympathy  and  faithful  performance  of  duties — Hobbies — School 
tone — Talks  —  Puberty — Girls — Brunn  on  co-education  —  Own 
experience  of  co-education — School  government — Fatherhood — 
Chapel  services  ....  Pages  199-210 

XVIII 

SCIENCE  TEACHING  AND  A  CHILD'S  PHILOSOPHY 

By  CORA  B.    SANDERS 

Formerly  Tutor  at  Lady  Margaret  HalU  Oxford  ;  Author  of 

various  papers  on  biological  subjects. 

The  struggle  between  science  and  religion  has  been  magnified — Two 
problems,  personal  and  social — The  former  here  treated — For  many 
the  old  difficulties  still  exist — Causes :  bad  treatment  or  bad  se- 
quence— Suggested  sequence — Average  man  has  some  philosophy 
and  so  have  children — Will  is  strong  in  the  young — A  world-order 
in  which  jjersonality  has  a  place — The  spiritual  side — Early  evolu- 
tion-theory gives  a  thread — Theory  need  not  stifle  observation — 
Parallel  presentation  of  science  and  religion — Avoids  confused 
conception  of  causation — Scientist's  open  mind — Laws  of  nature — 
Evil  of  too  much  inorganic  work — Use  of  speculative  theories — 
Need  of  direct  teaching— The  hold  of  spirit  .  Pages  211-226 


xiv      BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE   TEACHING 

XIX 

THE   PRESENT   CONDITION   OF    PHYSICS  i 
TEACHING   IN  THE   UNITED  STATES 

By  C.    R.    MANN,  Ph.D.  [ 

Professor  of  Physics  in  the  University  of  Chicago,  \ 

Secretary  of  the  American  Federation  of  Teachers  of  the  ^ 
Mathematical  and  the  Natural  Sciences^ 
foint  Author  of  Mann  and  Twiss's  "  Text-book  of  Physics^"  etc.  etc. 

Advance  in  equipment  during  the  last  thirty  years — Is  the  best  use 

being  made  of  it  ? — Factors  in  development — College  influence  and  | 

the  research-ideal — Idea  of  educating  has  been  lost — The  phrase-  : 

ology  not  the  spirit  of  research  has  been  transplanted — Measure-  j 
ments  of  a  too  accurate  sort  made  on  uninteresting  material — A 
Chicago  case — Six  causes  of  shortcomings — Associations  which 
exist  to  deal  with  the  various  difficulties — The  present  a  time  of 
great  opportunity            ....  Pages  227-238  ^ 

XX  \ 

SCHOOL  SCIENCE   IN   GERMANY  \ 

i 

By  the  editor  ; 

Historical — Suvern's  code — Rise  of  the  Realschule — Humanistic  ideal  \ 

— Equal  opportunity  for  two  tj^es  of  school — Hofler's  views,  es-  j 

pecially  dealing  with  physics,  as  mind-training  in  inductive  logic —  ' 

Adjustment  of  historical  and  systematic  claims — Help  from  Mach  i 

— Critical  completeness,  philosophy — Selection  of  subject-matter —  j 

The  Meran  Commission — Bavarian  scheme — Physics  in  Gymnasia  , 

— Kerschensteiner's   views — Commission's    recommendations   for  ! 

physics — Chemistry  and  biology — Practical  work — Fischer's  en-  | 

quiries — Difficulties  :  cost  of  equipment  and  training  of  teachers  | 
— Fischer's  course  for  teachers — Conclusion.                .  Pages  2y^-2.^\\ 

XXI  j 

SOME   PRACTICAL   NOTES  ON  THE  PLANNING  i 

OF  SCIENCE  LABORATORIES  j 

By  T.   H.   RUSSELL,   M.A.,   Architect  ! 

Extension  of  science  teaching — The  building — Old  rooms  converted  ; 
— Moral  effect  of  good  arrangements — Simplicity — Laboratory  for 
elementary  work — Space  required,  etc. — Chemical  laboratories — 

Lighting — Ventilation — Natural  ventilation — Walls    and   floor —  ! 

Benches — Other  fittings — Fire-risk  —  Draught-cupboards  —  Phy-  ] 
sical  laboratories— Special  requirements        .                 .  Pages  252-267  ' 


INTRODUCTION 

BY   PROFESSOR   SADLER 

yA  MONG  all  the  movements  of  thought 
/  ^  which  have  passed  over  modern 
2^  ^  Europe,  two  only,  and  those  separated 
by  a  long  interval  of  time,  have  had 
in  them  enough  of  sustained  force  to  sweep 
through  the  whole  field  of  higher  education  and 
to  give  a  new  aim  and  method  to  the  schools. 
The  first  was  the  classical  renaissance ;  the 
second  is  the  study  of  natural  science.  Each  has 
worked  in  the  main  upon  different  materials ;  the 
one  upon  the  texts  and  monuments  of  antiquity, 
the  other  upon  nature  closely  scrutinised  and 
comprehensively  observed.  Each  accordingly 
has  in  turn  developed  its  own  method  of  in- 
vestigation and  its  own  canons  of  evidence. 
Each  has  favoured  that  form  of  early  training 
which,  in  the  field  of  study  concerned,  makes  the 
vision  clear,  the  observation  accurately  alert,  and 
the  critical  judgment  sound.  But  in  spite  of  all 
differences  between  them  in  regard  to  the  subject- 
matter  of  study  and  the  practical  application  of 
its  results,  the  two  movements  have  had  in  their 


xvi      BROAD    LINES    IN    SCIENCE   TEACHING 

origin  one  characteristic  resemblance.  Both  have 
been  efforts  to  win  for  men  the  right  to  greater 
liberty  of  thought.  Both  have  been  inspired 
by  a  passion  for  intellectual  freedom  and  by 
indignation  at  obsolete  restraints  upon  the  mind. 
And  it  is  this  passionate,  human  element  which 
has  given  to  each  movement  in  turn  its  zeal  for 
educational  reform  and  the  strength  needed  for 
a  long  struggle  against  the  inertia  of  prejudice 
and  routine. 

What  the  classical  renaissance  was  to  men  of 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  the  scientific 
movement  is  to  us.  It  has  given  a  new  trend 
to  education.  It  has  changed  the  outlook  of  the 
mind.  It  has  given  a  new  intellectual  back- 
ground to  life.  It  has  therefore  disturbed  the 
old  balance  of  studies.  It  has  broken  down  a 
scholastic  monopoly.  It  has  made  a  new  learn- 
ing indispensable  to  all  professional  callings.  It 
demands  a  new  spirit  and  a  new  method  in 
teaching.  Its  claims  affect  the  whole  field  of 
education  and  every  grade  of  school.  They 
involve  a  revolutionary  change. 

But  school  systems  are  by  nature  conservative. 
They  are  rooted  in  old  ways,  loyal  to  established 
traditions,  sturdy  upholders  of  tested  experience, 
critics  of  what  is  new  and  untried.  A  chief  part 
of  their  work  is  to  train  up  those  who  will  carry 


INTRODUCTION  xvii 

on  the  business  of  the  nation  without  any  break 
in  the  continuity  of  its  historical  development. 
That  is  their  trust.  They  are  among  the  in- 
stitutions by  means  of  which  the  old  order  seeks 
to  hold  its  own  with  the  future.  Most  of  those 
who  occupy  in  them  the  posts  of  great  responsi- 
bility are  men  no  longer  young.  A  school 
system  therefore  resists  a  new  intellectual  move- 
ment which  challenges  its  accepted  precedents, 
which  demands  sweeping  changes  in  its  settled 
administration,  which  urges  a  redistribution  of 
its  endowments,  and  which  involves  a  fresh  point 
of  view  in  its  methods  of  instruction.  The 
leaders  of  the  classical  renaissance  had  to  fight 
for  generations  against  the  hard-set  conservatism 
of  the  schools.  A  great  political  change  was 
necessary  before  their  victory  could  be  complete. 
And  even  then  the  conservatism  of  the  schools 
was  so  tenacious  that  the  new  studies  lost  much 
of  their  life  and  purpose  under  the  pressure  of 
obstinately  persistent  traditions.  In  the  greater 
number  of  schools  which  were  founded  under 
the  impulse  of  the  Revival  of  Learning,  the 
intellectual  fire  died  down  at  last  into  mere  book- 
ishness  and  decorous  care  for  literary  precedent. 
How  little  of  the  austere  grace  of  mind  and 
person  which  boys  and  girls  had  gained  in 
Vittorino  da  Feltres  school  at  Mantua,  when 
b 


xviii    BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

Loves  Labour s  Lost  came  to  be  written,  could 
survive  in  the  sententious  pedantry  of  the  school- 
master Holofernes. 

The  educational  claims  of  the  scientific  move- 
ment met  with  the  same  resistance.  The  new 
thing,  because  it  was  in  essence  revolutionary, 
was  repelled  by  those  schools  which  were  the 
bulwarks  of  the  old  order  of  thought  and  of 
social  organisation.  Faraday  declared  in  1855 
that  even  the  classes  which  were  esteemed  to  be 
educated  were  for  the  most  part  not  only  ignorant 
of  physical  science  and  of  its  methods  of 
enquiry  and  judgment,  but  also  ignorant  of  their 
ignorance.  Five  years  ago,  one  who  by  training 
and  experience  is  especially  qualified  to  judge 
in  such  a  matter,  said  :  "It  is  a  fact,  and  a  very 
strange  fact,  that  although  we  are  living  in  a 
scientific  age,  anything  approaching  to  a  know- 
ledge not  of  the  general  principles  but  of  the 
methods  and  results  of  any  one  department 
of  science  is  extremely  rare  among  educated 
men."  ^  He  was  speaking  of  those  whose  calling 
lies  outside  the  strictly  scientific  professions,  and 
who  have  been  educated  in  places  where  the  old 
scholastic  tradition  is  strong.  The  change  during 
the  last  fifty  years  has,  it  is  true,  been  enormous. 

^  p.  N.  Waggett,  The  ScUntific  Temper  in  Religion  (London  : 
Longmans,  i9o5)>  P-  34- 


INTRODUCTION  xix 

But,  in  England,  the  spirit  of  science  has  not  yet 
permeated  the  higher  schools,  at  any  rate  the 
higher  schools  for  boys.  Science  has  secured 
a  place  in  their  curricula,  a  firm  place  and  re- 
spectful recognition,^  but  scientific  method  and 
the  spirit  of  science  have  not  yet  influenced  the 
whole  of  the  intellectual  life  of  the  schools,  have 
not  yet  remoulded  the  ways  of  teaching  in  other 
than  what  in  the  narrower  sense  of  the  words 
are  called  scientific  subjects.  There  is  still  in 
these  schools  (and  in  many  others  affected  by 
their  example)  a  discontinuity,  which  indeed  is 
in  some  degree  unavoidable,  between  the  subject- 
matter  of  the  scientific  courses  and  that  of  the 
other  parts  of  the  curriculum.  But  worse  than 
this,  there  is  a  conflict  of  presuppositions,  a 
difference  in  intellectual  focus,  which  could  be 
greatly  lessened,  and  which,  even  when  not  con- 
sciously realised,  is  injurious  to  those  who  learn. 

The  situation  as  regards  the  teaching  of 
science  in  English  schools  has  been  affected  by 
the  course  of  our  educational  history  to  a  degree 
which  calls  for  explanation.  We  have  in  fact 
no  administrative  unity  in  our  national  education. 
Two  great  systems  of  schools  exist  side  by  side, 

*  See  the  Report  on  Science  Teaching  in  Public  Schools 
represented  on  the  Association  of  Public  School  Science  Masters^ 
edited  by  Mr.  O.  H.  Latter  for  the  Board  of  Education  (London  : 
Wymans,  1909). 


XX       BROAD   LINES   IN    SCIENCE   TEACHING 

those  under  State  inspection  and  those  which  are 
not  so  inspected.  In  the  course  of  the  last 
century,  the  first  of  these  systems  has  grown 
with  extraordinary  speed,  and  now,  in  point  of 
size,  is  to  the  other  what  a  giant  is  to  a  man. 
But  the  smaller  group  of  schools  which  is  not  yet 
under  regular  inspection  by  the  State  (I  exclude 
in  this  connection  that  large  proportion  of  private 
schools  which  concerns  itself  with  elementary 
work  alone)  enjoys  social  pre-eminence  and 
retains  a  large  measure  of  political  influence. 
This  group  is  semi-independent  of  State  control. 
Parliament  has  subjected  it,  at  two  stages,  to 
public  enquiry.  Its  expenditure  of  old  endow- 
ments, its  forms  of  self-government,  and  in  a 
rather  vague  way  its  courses  of  instruction,  are 
regulated  by  statute.  But  its  general  position  is 
quasi-public  rather  than  public,  in  the  sense  that 
no  Government  department  keeps  its  work  under 
inspection  and  continuous  review.  There  have 
of  course  been  great  advantages  in  this  different 
treatment  of  two  great  groups  of  schools.  But 
one  of  the  serious  drawbacks  to  it  has  been  the 
weakness  of  public  pressure  upon  the  higher 
secondary  schools  for  boys,  and  upon  the  pre- 
paratory schools  which  do  the  initial  stages  of 
their  work,  in  respect  to  the  place  of  natural 
science    in    the    regular    curriculum.      The    old 


INTRODUCTION  xxi 

scholastic  tradition  has  been  protected  in  them 
by  the  attitude  of  non-interference  adopted  by 
the  State.  In  all  the  schools  which  are  periodic- 
ally inspected  by  Government  and  which  carry 
on  their  work  under  regulations  laid  down  from 
year  to  year  by  the  State,  natural  science  has  a 
place  of  greater  relative  importance  in  the  course 
of  study  than  is  yet  the  case  in  the  large  majority 
of  the  schools  which  are  exempt  from  this  direct 
form  of  pressure.  Our  English  system  of  State- 
aided  and  State-inspected  education  grew  into 
its  full  stature  during  the  period  in  which  natural 
science  had  already  become  the  most  potent 
intellectual  influence  of  the  age.  The  fact  that 
most  of  those  who  in  Parliament  framed  the 
plan  of  the  new  system,  and  of  those  who  admin- 
istered it  from  the  public  offices,  had  themselves 
been  trained  under  a  system  of  education  which 
included  but  little  natural  science,  delayed  for  a 
time  the  entrance  of  the  new  ideas  into  many  of 
the  schools  concerned.  But  the  influence  of  the 
Science  and  Art  Department  (officered  almost 
entirely  by  men  who  had  received  a  scientific 
training),  the  needs  of  industry,  and  the  strong 
trend  of  public  opinion  overbore  this  temporary 
resistance  and  neglect.  The  result  is  that  one 
of  the  first  aims  prescribed  by  Government  for 
every  public  elementary  school   is  the  '*  careful 


xxii     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE   TEACHING 

training  of  the  children  in  habits  of  observation 
and  clear  reasoning,  so  that  they  may  gain  an 
intelligent  acquaintance  with  some  of  the  facts 
and  laws  of  nature."  And  every  secondary  school, 
in  order  to  be  recognised  as  efficient  by  the 
Board  of  Education,  must  submit  for  the  Board's 
approval  **a  curriculum  (with  time-analysis) 
of  the  whole  school,  providing  for  due  continuity 
of  instruction  in  each  of  the  subjects  taken  and 
for  an  adequate  amount  of  time  being  given  to 
each  of  these  subjects,"  while  it  is  farther  required 
that  the  curriculum  must  include,  among  other 
subjects,  science  with  practical  work. 

Step  by  step  the  State  has  advanced  towards 
a  comprehensive  treatment  of  national  education. 
At  first  it  confined  itself,  in  the  main,  to  the 
schools  intended  for  the  labouring  poor.  These 
schools,  once  systematically  aided  out  of  public 
funds,  rapidly  grew  in  number,  in  importance,  and 
in  range  of  intellectual  effort.  Next,  evening 
and  other  classes  for  scientific  and  technical 
instruction  were  liberally  aided  by  the 
State.  The  beginnings  of  higher  education  for 
the  people  were  thus  secured.  Government 
then  found  itself  compelled  to  encourage  a  new 
type  of  secondary  day  school  as  a  superstructure 
to  the  elementary  schools  and  as  a  link  between 
them  and  the  technical  classes.     In   1890  funds 


INTRODUCTION  xxiii 

were  forthcoming,  under  the  Local  Taxation 
(Customs  and  Excise)  Act,  which  enabled  the 
Technical  Instruction  Committees  to  aid  the 
scientific  side  of  the  work  of  the  local  secondary 
schools.  Finally,  the  Education  Act  of  1902  gave 
to  local  authorities  in  county  and  county  boroughs 
throughout  the  country  the  duty  of  co-ordinating 
the  schools,  elementary  and  secondary,  within 
their  respective  areas.  The  effects  of  the  Act 
have  been  momentous.  The  plan  of  a  national 
system  of  education  has  been,  in  great  measure, 
administratively  realised.  A  greater  impetus  has 
been  given  to  secondary  schools  than  at  any  time 
since  the  Revival  of  Learning.  In  form  at  any 
rate,  if  not  in  substance,  the  scientific  movement 
has  won  its  victory  over  almost  the  whole  area  of 
English  education.  And  those  of  the  endowed 
schools  which  still  remain  outside  the  province 
of  Government  inspection  are  like  scattered 
islands  in  a  great  sea. 

But  in  the  very  moment  of  victory  some  of 
the  best  friends  of  science  teaching  felt  mis- 
giving and  disappointment.  Was  the  science 
which  had  thus  won  its  place  in  school  curricula 
being  taught  in  a  way  which  kindled  intellectual 
interests  and  prepared  those  who  learnt  it  for  the 
work  of  independent  thinking  ?  Had  it,  in  spite  of 
laboratories  which  gave  opportunities  for  practical 


xxiv    BROAD   LINES   IN  SCIENCE  TEACHING 

*  *i 

work,  merely  taken  its  place,  in  most  instances,  J 
in  the  ranks  of  other  "  subjects  "  and  become  but  i 
a  new  branch  of  the  old  scholastic  routine  ?  And  j 
what  was  the  reason  why  so  many  of  those  who  ' 
had  been  trained  through  natural  science  failed  ; 
in  the  power  of  self-expression  and  were  con-  i 
sequently  weak  in  the  accurate  presentment  of  i 
things  observed  ?  At  this  point  Professor  Arm- 
strong and  Professor  Perry  shook  us  out  of  a  ■ 
dogmatic  slumber.  And  many  strong  advocates  ] 
of  the  claims  of  natural  science  to  a  predominant  j 
place  in  secondary  education  admitted  the  value 
of  the  old  scholastic  tradition,  for  the  reason  that,  ^ 
at  its  best,  it  cultivates  the  power  of  expression  i 
by  exact  linguistic  discipline  and  opens  the  mind  1 
by  humanistic  studies  to  a  wider  view  of  life.  ' 

Thus  the  present  is  a  time  of  reconciliation 
between  two  schools  of  thought  which  had  long  j 
been  separated  and  often  bitterly  opposed.  Each  \ 
has  come  to  a  better  understanding  of  the  aims  | 
of  the  other.  We  are  passing  through  a  period  j 
of  truce.  Those  whose  experience  has  lain  in  ; 
schools  of  the  new  type  appreciate  the  value  of  ! 
the  humane  and  literary  ideals  which  are  the  real  ; 
distinction  of  the  older  tradition  in  secondary  : 
education.  Those  on  the  other  hand  whose  ex-  i 
perience  has  lain  in  the  older  type  of  school  admire  \ 
the  intellectual  vigour — especially  shown  in  scien- 


INTRODUCTION  xxv 

tific  and  practical  work — which  characterises  many 
of  the  new.  It  is  felt  that  what  is  needed  is  a 
combination  of  the  best  in  the  two  traditions,  a 
fusion  which  is  more  possible  now  than  at  any 
earlier  time. 

But  such  a  fusion  cannot  easily  be  brought 
about.  The  most  threatenino^  evil  in  modern  1 
education  is  multiplicity  of  studies,  imperfectly, 
related  to  one  another  and  at  too  frequent  intervals  ■ 
changing  the  focus  of  the  mind.  The  most 
hopeful  way  out  of  the  difficulty  caused  by  this 
pressure  of  many  subjects  upon  a  necessarily 
limited  time-table  lies  through  the  study  of 
methods  of  teaching,  with  a  view  to  the  closer 
dovetailing  of  related  branches  of  knowledge,  to 
the  excision  of  those  parts  of  each  subject  which 
can  be  omitted  without  destroying  the  continuity 
and  discipline  of  the  instruction,  and  to  greater 
precision  and  economy  in  the  lines  of  intellectual 
approach.  The  rapid  growth  of  interest  in  the 
study  of  methods  of  teaching  is  therefore  one  of 
the  most  encouraging,  as  it  is  one  of  the  most 
significant,  of  recent  developments  in  English 
education.  It  has  come  at  the  time  when  it  was 
most  needed.  It  has  shown  itself  in  every  grade 
of  education.  It  has  been  encouraged  by  nearly 
all  the  associations  of  teachers.  The  professional 
journals  have  furthered  it.     It  is  showing  itself  in 

b   2 


xxvi    BROAD  LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

discussion,  in  the  publication  of  experience,  and 
already,  to  some  degree,  in  systematic  experiment. 
Towards  the  study  of  one  aspect  of  the  subject 
this  book  is  a  contribution. 


II 

The  writers  of  the  following  chapters  desire  to 
see  the  scientific  habit  of  mind  and  the  scientific 
way  of  looking  at  things  more  carefully  fostered 
in  English  education,  especially  in  that  part  of 
it  which  still  lies  under  the  dominant  influence 
of  the  old  scholastic  tradition.  They  are  far  from 
claiming  for  physical  science  a  preponderant  part 
in  the  course  of  general  education  which  should 
precede  any  form  of  specialised  study.  Language 
and  literature,  history,  art,  and  music  are  in  their 
view  indispensable  factors  in  a  liberal  education. 
But  they  hold  that  on  educational  grounds  the 
study  of  nature  should  also  be  a  necessary  part 
of  the  school  training  of  every  child.  They  feel 
moreover  that,  as  Faraday  said,  everything 
depends  upon  the  spirit  and  manner  in  which 
scientific  instruction  is  given  and  honoured. 
They  wish  to  see  school  work  and  the  conditions 
of  school  life  imbued  with  science.  They  believe 
that  in  the  encouragement  of  the  scientific 
temper  and  attitude  of  mind  lies  one  of  the  best 


INTRODUCTION  xxvii 

hopes  of  culture,  the  surest  guarantee  of  intel- 
lectual activity  and  of  temperate  judgment  in 
the  nation,  and  one  necessary  means  of  preparation 
for  the  duties  of  citizenship.  They  have  there- 
fore brought  into  common  stock  their  experience 
of  the  ways  in  which  the  study  of  science  may 
become,  directly  and  indirectly,  a  vitalising 
influence  in  the  work  of  a  school. 

It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  this  book,  while 
mainly  concerned  with  the  methods  of  teaching 
science,  addresses  itself  also  to  other  fundamental 
questions  which  are  involved  in  any  study  of  the 
right  relation  of  the  growing  mind  towards  new 
knowledge,  new  duties,  and  new  kinds  of  action. 
Mr.  Badley  sets  this  larger  view  before  us  in  the 
first  chapter.  The  true  aim,  he  urges,  in  the 
preliminary  teaching  of  science  is  not  to  give  a 
mass  of  facts  to  be  remembered,  but  to  train  the 
pupil  to  a  right  habit  of  investigation  and  of 
inference.  And  he  strikes  the  key-note  of  the 
book  in  his  argument  that  science  should  not  be 
divorced  in  the  children's  minds  from  the  actual 
happenings  of  everyday  experience  in  house  and 
garden.  This  is  the  synthesis  which  makes 
science  teaching  real.  Science  (though  in  part 
focussed  in  certain  lessons  and  practical  exercises) 
is  not  to  be  treated  as  a  separate  compartment  of 
a  programme  of  studies.     It  is  the  gaining  of  a 


xxviii   BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

habit  and  attitude  of  mind,  partly  through  pre- 
scribed lessons,  partly  through  voluntary  occupa 
tions,  partly  through  the  medium  of  practical 
duties  done  (with  understanding  of  the  scientific 
reason  for  them)  by  the  pupil  in  the  service  of 
the  school-community  of  which  he  is  a  member. 

Dr.  Hodson  points  out  in  one  of  his  contribu- 
tions to  the  volume  that  the  teaching  of  science 
in  pre-university  education  falls  into  three  stages 
— one  extending  from  early  childhood  to  the  age 
of  twelve  or  thirteen ;  the  second  covering  the 
period  up  to  about  sixteen ;  and  the  third  (of 
varying  length  according  to  the  duration  of  the 
pupil's  school-life)  comprising  the  remainder  of 
his  course.  Following  this  order  of  treatment, 
the  book  begins,  after  Mr.  Badley's  opening 
chapter,  with  articles  upon  the  scope  and  teaching 
of  nature -study  by  Mr.  Edward  Thomas  and 
Miss  von  Wyss.  The  essays  on  nature -study, 
which  is  largely  concerned  with  the  study  of 
living  things,  lead  to  Mr.  Latter's  paper  upon 
the  teaching  of  biology.  He  shows  how  cogent 
are  the  reasons  for  regretting  the  present  com- 
parative neglect  of  biological  studies  in  secondary 
schools.  Closely  akin  to  Mr.  Latter's  argument 
is  that  put  forward  in  the  following  essay  by 
Miss  Alice  Ravenhill  upon  the  teaching  of 
hygiene.     She  raises,   among   other  matters   of 


INTRODUCTION  xxix 

the  highest  educational  importance,  the  pressing 
question  how,  through  the  teaching  of  hygiene, 
boys  and  girls  may  receive  instruction  as  to  the 
right  conduct  and  transmission  of  life.  The 
following  chapters  in  the  book  deal  with  problems 
of  educational  method.  A  deeply  interesting 
question  in  intellectual  ethics  which  presents 
itself  to  many  teachers  of  science  in  schools  is 
examined  by  Dr.  Percy  Nunn  in  his  essay  on 
**  The  Place  of  Hypotheses  in  Science  Teaching." 
Dr.  Hodson  reviews  the  often  conflicting  claims 
of  *'  research  "  work  and  examinations,  and,  while 
strongly  recommending  a  judicious  but  thorough- 
going use  of  the  heuristic  method  up  to  about 
sixteen,  points  out  the  need,  when  the  examina- 
tion stage  is  reached,  for  "a  speedier  method  of 
accumulating  experience  "  which  may  be  followed 
up  by  interesting  individual  work  in  free  time. 
He  illustrates  from  the  practice  in  his  own  labor- 
atory this  method  of  counteracting  the  tendency 
of  examinations  to  put  an  undue  pressure  upon 
receptivity,  but  frankly  admits  that  "the  more 
coherent,  deductive  ordering  "  of  a  subject,  which 
preparation  for  an  examination  requires,  is  (if  not 
dominant  in  the  school  course  and  if  it  is  post- 
poned to  the  later  stages  of  instruction)  not 
unwelcome  or  without  benefit  to  some  of  the 
most    active    minds.       In    the    following   paper, 


XXX     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE   TEACHING 

which  also  draws  freely  from  the  writer's  long 
experience  in  working  out  new  methods  of  in- 
struction, Mr.  T.  J.  Garstang  discusses  the  teach- 
ing of  mathematics  in  schools,  emphasising  the 
great  importance  of  preserving  a  large  place  for 
"  the  inductive  process  as  a  vital  factor  in  promot- 
ing healthy  and  vigorous  growth  of  mind  during 
the  early  years  of  youth "  and  showing  ways 
in  which  the  mathematical  teaching  may  be 
closely  correlated  with  that  of  physical  science. 
This  leads  to  Mr.  Porter's  paper  on  the  co-ordina- 
tion of  physics  teaching  in  school  and  college, 
which  in  turn  is  followed  by  an  essay  on  the 
teaching  of  geography  by  Mr.  Stephenson,  who 
agrees  with  Mr.  Mackinder  that  **  the  object  of 
the  teacher  is  to  build  up  a  conception  of  the 
surface  of  the  earth  as  a  product  of  interacting 
forces,  in  order  that  that  surface  may  be  intelli- 
gently viewed  as  the  scene  of  social  activities." 
In  the  next  essay  Professor  Powicke  discusses 
the  place  of  scientific  method  in  the  teaching  of 
history,  pointing  out  how  great  is  the  value  of 
story  and  legend  in  stimulating  the  power  of 
imagination,  but  demurring  to  any  attempt  at 
serious  and  systematic  history  teaching  being 
made  before  the  later  years  of  school  life.  **  When 
the  teaching  does  begin,  it  should  be  real.  The 
teacher  must  know  his  work  through  and  through. 


I 


INTRODUCTION  xxxi 

.  .  .  There  should  be  no  hurry  at  school  to  fix 
and  define  the  sequence  of  civilisation,  but  there 
should  be  great  care  to  make  the  different  stages 
real  and  living."  The  larger  use,  in  the  teach- 
ing of  arithmetic,  of  illustrations  drawn  from 
economics,  and  the  best  methods  of  teaching 
domestic  science  to  girls  are  discussed  by  Mr. 
Kahn  and  Professor  Smithells  in  the  succeeding 
chapters  ;  the  teaching  of  the  sciences  bearing  on 
agriculture  and  of  engineering  in  those  which 
follow.  A  very  important  aspect  of  the  question 
is  then  raised  by  Mr.  Sidney  Unwin  in  his  paper 
on  '*  Science  Teaching  and  the  Training  of  the 
Affections."  He  shows  how  much  scientific  train- 
ing may  be  gained  through  compulsory  practical 
work,  including  poultry  and  bee-keeping,  farm 
and  garden  occupations,  as  well  as  through 
hobbies.  He  also  points  out  how  the  conditions 
and  studies  of  school  life  may  be  so  organised  as 
*'  to  unfold  to  our  boys  the  mysteries  of  birth  and 
growth."  His  paper,  based  upon  much  ex- 
perience, will  impress  the  reader  with  a  strong 
sense  of  the  possibilities  of  co-education,  when 
carried  on  with  close  interest  and  care,  as  a 
means  of  safeguarding  a  good  moral  tone. 
Another  step  in  the  cumulative  argument  of  the 
book  is  taken  by  Miss  Sanders,  who  writes  about 
the  influence  of   wise  science  teaching  upon  a 


xxxii    BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE   TEACHING 

child's  philosophy  and  religious  ideas.  She 
pleads  for  the  giving  to  every  child  of  the  best 
we  can  of  science  (including  some  early  teaching 
of  biology)  and  the  fullest  instruction  in  religion, 
not  least  in  acts  of  reverent,  common  worship. 
Studies  of  the  present  position  of  science  teach- 
ing in  the  United  States  and  in  Germany,  sug- 
gestive as  showing  the  similar  trend  of  ex- 
perienced opinion  in  those  countries  and  our  own, 
and  practical  notes  on  the  planning  of  science 
laboratories  in  schools  complete  the  volume. 


Ill 

In  conclusion,  a  few  words  should  be  added  as 
to  some  of  the  practical  inferences  which  may  be 
drawn  from  the  book. 

It  is  right  to  give  very  much  discretionary 
freedom  to  the  competent  teacher  in  working  out 
new  methods  of  work  for  his  class,  and  to  allow 
him  much  liberty  in  experimenting  in  the  omis- 
sion of  parts  of  his  subject  from  the  course  of 
instruction.  It  would  be  a  mistake  to  hamper 
the  teacher  by  elaborate  syllabuses  imposed  by 
an  external  authority.  The  willingness  of  the 
Board  of  Education  to  give  freedom  to  the 
skilled  teacher  is  wise  and  fruitful. 

If  science  is  to  have  a  strong  intellectual  in- 


INTRODUCTION  xxxiii 

fluence  upon  the  whole  body  of  school-work,  it  is 
essential  that  men  and  women  of  the  highest 
ability  and  competence  should  be  encouraged  to 
devote  themselves  to  service  in  the  secondary 
schools.  This  will  not  be  the  case  unless,  through 
pressure  exerted  by  the  State,  a  great  improve- 
ment is  quickly  made  in  the  salaries  and  pro- 
fessional prospects  of  the  assistant  teachers  in 
the  large  majority  of  those  schools  throughout 
the  country.  This  is  one  of  the  most  urgent, 
perhaps  the  most  urgent,  question  in  national 
education  at  the  present  time.  We  are  spending 
large  sums  upon  the  material  equipment  of 
secondary  education,  but  relatively  too  little 
upon  the  human  factor  which  is  vital  to  its 
welfare. 

The  more  general  introduction  of  biology  into 
school  studies  should,  on  educational  grounds,  be 
specially  encouraged. 

It  is  important  that  attention  and  aid  should  be 
given  to  the  development  of  well-arranged  courses 
in  domestic  science  in  the  secondary  schools  for 
girls  (especially  as  a  supplement  to  the  ordinary 
school  course),  and  to  the  training  of  teachers  in 
this  subject. 

The  argument  in  favour  of  the  co-education  of 
boys  and  girls,  in  boarding  schools  as  well  as  in 
day  schools,  is  being  strengthened  by  a  growing 


xxxiv    BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE   TEACHING 

volume  of  experience,  provided  that  it  is  carried 
on  under  conditions  of  wise  and  very  careful 
oversight,  and  with  due  regard  to  their  different 
needs  in  point  of  study  and  exercise. 

The  comparative  neglect  of  preliminary  science 
teaching  in  the  preparatory  secondary  schools  for 
boys  is  a  grave  defect  in  national  education. 
Mr.  Latter  points  out  in  his  Report  on  Science 
Teaching  in  Public  Schools  that  ''It  is  no  un- 
common occurrence  for  a  boy,  clever  at  classics 
and  mathematics  and  therefore  placed  in  a  re- 
latively high  form  on  entry  to  the  Public  School, 
to  have  done  no  science  whatever.  Total  in- 
experience of  science  is  more  common  among 
these  clever  boys  than  among  their  less  favoured 
brethren.  Nor  is  the  reason  far  to  seek.  Science 
finds  no  place  in  the  examination  for  the  valuable 
(classical)  entrance  scholarships  awarded  by  the 
Public  Schools.  There  is  thus  a  strong  financial 
temptation  both  to  parents  and  masters  of 
Preparatory  Schools  to  neglect  the  subject  which 
does  not  pay."  The  study  of  nature  should 
form  an  indispensable  part  of  the  early  educa- 
tion of  every  child.  But  in  present  circumstances 
the  early  education  of  some  of  the  most  promising 
boys  in  the  country  is  injured  by  a  prematurely 
specialised  curriculum,  in  which  linguistic  and 
mathematical  training  holds  too  large  a  place, 


INTRODUCTION  xxxv 

with  the  result  that  the  study  of  nature  and 
manual  training  are  unduly  neglected.  The 
remedy  for  this  evil  cannot  be  found  without 
considerable  changes  in  the  present  methods  of 
awarding  entrance  scholarships  at  the  great 
Public  Schools.  This  may  call  for  action  on  the 
part  of  the  State.  But  administrative  reforms, 
necessary  as  they  are,  will  not  bear  full  fruit 
unless  there  goes  with  them  a  change  in  the 
point  of  view  of  many  parents  and  teachers, 
such  a  change  as  would  accompany  a  wider 
diffusion  of  the  scientific  temper  of  mind. 

What,  then,  are  the  distinctive  marks  of  the 
scientific  temper  of  mind  which  it  is  so  neces- 
sary to  encourage  in  education  ?  Among  many 
characteristic  signs  of  it,  four  seem  to  be  pri- 
mary and  essential — an  alert  interest  in  things 
seen ;  patience  and  exactitude  in  observing, 
verifying,  and  recording  them  ;  a  disposition  to 
brood  over  new  facts  before  reaching  a  judg- 
ment as  to  their  meaning  and  classification ;  and 
an  habitual  willingness  to  take  great  trouble  in 
getting  at  the  truth.  These  qualities  and  powers 
of  mind  have  in  a  signal  way  proved  their  value 
in  the  pursuit  and  application  of  natural  science, 
but  they  are  not  less  efficacious  in  many  other 
branches  of  study  and  practice.  Experience  has 
shown    that   one   necessary    instrument   in  their 


xxxvi    BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

training  is  found  in  the  first-hand  study  of  nature. 
But  the  direct  contact  with  nature  which  is  thus 
necessary  to  a  Hberal  education  must  be  held  to 
include,  as  an  indispensable  influence  in  its  dis- 
cipline, intimacy  with  living  people  through  whom 
the  learner  gains  direct  experience  of  the  beliefs 
and  ideals  in  which  men  find  strength  and  hope  ; 
under  whose  authority  he  learns  how  to  observe 
and  to  verify ;  and  from  the  working  of  whose 
minds  he  assimilates  almost  unconsciously  the 
power  of  rightly  using  his  own.  It  is  a  sterile 
form  of  scientific  training  which  takes  little  regard 
of  human  relationships,  and  a  narrow  kind  of 
humane  education  which  ignores  the  study  of 
nature.  A  liberal  education  draws  its  energy 
from  many  sources,  doing  its  work  (as  Ruskin 
said)  through  ''  the  study  of  nature,  the  sight  and 
history  of  men,  and  the  setting  forth  of  noble 
objects  of  action." 

M.  E.  SADLER. 


I 


BROAD  LINES 
IN  SCIENCE  TEACHING 

I 

THE   PLACE   OF  SCIENCE   IN  THE 
SCHOOL   CURRICULUM 

Bv  J.  H.  BADLEY,  M.A. 

THE  battle  for  the  admission  of  Science 
into  the  school  course  has  been  fought 
and  won.  No  one  now  disputes  that 
it  has  a  place,  even  though  by  some 
staunch  adherents  of  the  old  school  of  classical 
culture  its  place  may  be  grudgingly  conceded, 
and  kept  as  small  as  the  clamour  of  commercially 
minded  parents  will  allow.  This  is,  perhaps,  the 
less  to  be  wondered  at  when  we  remember  that 
the  advocates  of  Science  have  been  as  sweeping 
and  one-sided  in  their  claims  as  its  opponents. 
Herbert  Spencer,  the  high  priest  of  scientific 
dogmatism,  in  the  most  widely  known  of  his 
writings  put  the  question,  "What  knowledge  is 
of  most  worth  ?  "  and  after  discussing  the  bearing 
of  knowledge  on  earning  a  livelihood,  health, 
citizenship,   art  and   mental   discipline,  gave  on 


2         BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

every  count  the  answer — ''Science."  Science, 
according  to  his  claim,  must  henceforward  form 
the  basis,  and  occupy  the  larger  and  more  im- 
portant part  of  the  school  curriculum,  and  such 
side-interests  as  literature  and  the  arts  might  be 
allowed  to  occupy  the  leisure  part  of  education,  as 
of  life. 

Here  was  a  turning  of  the  tables,  indeed,  upon 
the  classical  school ;  and  in  their  revolutionary 
zeal  some  of  the  supporters  of  Science  have 
endeavoured,  so  far  as  the  deadweight  of  pre- 
judice in  favour  of  the  humanities  and  old-estab- 
lished custom  would  allow,  to  realise  this  ideal. 
They  admit,  of  course,  the  need,  duly  sub- 
ordinated, of  other  subjects ;  of  mathematics, 
naturally,  as  a  sister  science  and  the  most  power- 
ful of  instruments  in  the  physical  sciences ;  of 
some  foreign  languages,  necessary  for  keeping 
abreast  of  contemporary  discovery  and  thought ; 
of  the  use  of  books,  for  reference  ;  perhaps  even 
of  some  command  of  the  mother-tongue,  in 
order  to  describe  experiments  and  convey  dis- 
coveries to  others  ;  and  of  drawing,  of  a  strictly 
utilitarian  kind,  to  help  to  record  and  present 
them.  But  anything  conducive  to  literary  and 
artistic  enjoyment,  as  able  to  amuse  only  the 
leisure  of  the  few,  they  would  leave  to  these 
to  find  for  themselves,  apart  from  the  serious 
business  of  life  and  education. 

The  foregoing  sketch  of  a  school  course,  drawn 


THE  PLACE  OF  SCIENCE  IN  THE  SCHOOL      3 

up  on  the  lines  of  Herbert  Spencer's  claim  for 
Science,  is,  happily,  a  fancy  picture,  or  at  most 
a  caricature  of  the  reality.  But,  after  all,  it  is 
not  so  unfair  a  statement  of  the  demands 
advanced  by  some  teachers,  as  well  as  by  many 
men  of  business  and  parents  who  want  quick 
returns  for  the  cost  of  education  in  the  shape  of 
knowledge  that  will  pay.  And  let  it  be  at  once 
admitted  that  they  are  fully  justified  in  claiming 
a  place  for  Science  in  the  school  course  on  this 
ground.  So  much  of  modern  industry  and  busi- 
ness, and,  indeed,  of  most  sides  of  modern  life,  is 
not  only  based  on  the  discoveries  of  Science,  but 
depends  for  efficient  performance  on  a  practical 
knowledge  of  some  or  other  of  its  branches,  that 
education  without  any  knowledge  of  Science  is 
now,  whether  for  boys  or  girls,  well-nigh  as  un- 
practical and  absurd  as  it  would  be  without  any 
knowledge  of  the  *' three  R's."  There  are  other 
reasons,  and  weighty  ones  too,  for  including  it  in 
the  school  curriculum  ;  but  this  reason  alone,  its 
utility  and  direct  bearing  upon  many  of  the 
activities  of  modern  life,  is  real  enough  to 
justify  the  demand  for  giving  it  a  place,  and 
a  large  one,  in  education.  But  that  is  a  very 
different  thing  from  making  it  the  sole  basis 
of  education,  or  even  for  making  it  the  chief 
means  of  training  for  all  alike.  That  would  be 
every  bit  as  narrow  and  inefficient  and — in  the 
widest  sense — as  unpractical  as  the  old  classical 


4         BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

training.  In  the  first  place,  we  cannot  all  find  our 
interest  and  our  best  training  in  scientific  research 
any  more  than  in  writing  Latin  verse ;  nor,  for 
that  matter,  is  it  necessary  that  we  should,  for  in 
these  days  of  highly  specialised  knowledge,  we 
must  be  content  to  call  in  the  expert  in  the 
particular  branch  of  applied  Science  that  we  need, 
just  as  we  call  in  the  doctor.  What  is  necessary 
is  that  we  should  have  some  modicum  of  scientific 
knowledge  and  training  to  enable  us  first  to 
appreciate  the  value  of  his  advice,  and  then  to 
follow  it  intelligently.  And,  in  the  \  second  place, 
whether  or  not  we  follow  some  career  for  which 
a  scientific  training  may  be  specially  needed,  we 
are  in  any  case  to  be  human  beings  and  share 
the  joys  and  sorrows  and  common  interests  of 
humanity ;  so  that  there  is  still,  when  we  have 
admitted  all  that  can  be  urged  for  the  utility  of 
Science,  a  place  left  in  education  for  the  "  humani- 
ties," the  literary,  artistic,  and  social  studies  whose 
main  purpose  is  to  enrich  our  lives  with  higher 
ideals,  nobler  motives,  and  wider  sympathies. 

The  fact  is  that  both  sides  in  the  dispute  have 
been  too  ready  to  base  the  claims  of  Science 
solely  on  its  practical  utility,  and  to  ignore  the 
real  grounds  on  which  the  educational  value  of 
Science,  as  of  any  other  subject  in  the  school 
curriculum,  must  be  determined.  These  are 
threefold :  the  kind  of  mptiye  it  appeals  to  and 
arouses,  the  kind  of  power  that  it  develops,  and 


THE  PLACE  OF  SCIENCE  IN  THE  SCHOOL      5 

the  kind  of  discipline  that  it  gives.  Tried  by 
these  tests,  the  claims  for  Science  are  at  once 
seen  to  be  well  founded.  Its  appeal  to  the 
instinct  of  curiosity,  to  love  of  experiment  and 
delight  in  machinery,  is  instant,  and,  one  may 
almost  say,  universal ;  and  to  some,  at  least,  it 
offers  the  fullest  satisfaction  of  the  highest  motive 
that  can  inspire  man's  work — the  service  of  his 
fellows.  Again,  the  power  over  material  things 
and  over  the  instruments  of  knowledge  developed 
by  Science  and  scientific  method  is  one  of  the 
chief  wonders,  as  it  is  one  of  the  commonplaces, 
of  our  time ;  while  the  discipline  that  the  study 
gives  is,  in  some  respects  (owing  to  the  nature 
of  the  material  with  which  it  deals),  superior  to 
that  given  by  any  other.  But  in  admitting  all 
this  on  behalf  of  the  educational  value  of  Science, 
we  must  not  forget  that  it  does  not  apply  to 
all  cases  alike.  If  to  some  the  knowledge  of 
Nature's  workings  is  the  one  really  interesting 
thing  in  the  world,  to  others  it  is  only,  as  it  were, 
the  dissection  of  a  living  beauty  that,  in  striving 
to  explain,  it  can  only  destroy.  Granted  the 
power  that  it  gives,  power  of  that  kind  (for  we 
must  not  make  the  old  mistake  of  supposing  that 
the  power  trained  by  exercise  in  one  subject  is 
like  that  trained  by  another  kind  of  exercise,  or 
that  it  can  be  applied  at  will  to  other  things  and 
exercised  in  other  ways)  is,  as  I  have  already 
pointed  out,  neither  needed  by  all,  nor,  even  if 


6         BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

desired,  always  attainable.  There  are  some  minds 
to  which  it  seems  as  little  possible  as  linguistic 
and  literary  skill  to  others.  And,  finally,  invalu- 
able as  is  the  particular  discipline  the  study  of 
Science  can  give,  where  it  is  followed  with  real 
interest  and  intelligence,  when  this  is  not  the  case 
no  more  can  be  said  for  this  subject  than  for  Latin 
or  any  other  that  is  little  liked  and  little  under- 
stood ;  both  can  give  a  discipline  of  a  kind — and 
a  necessary  kind  too — the  discipline  of  doing 
something  that  we  do  not  find  easy  or  pleasant;  but 
this  kind  of  discipline,  even  if  good  for  character,  is 
dearly  bought  at  the  cost  of  the  mental  stagnation 
that  accompanies  it  if  given  in  large  doses  ;  and 
besides,  it  can  be  given  in  other  ways  less  costly, 
both  in  money  and  in  teaching  power,  than  the 
study  of  Science  by  those  who  have  not  either 
the  wish  or  the  power  to  carry  it  far. 

Are  we  then  brought  back  to  some  compromise 
between  the  opposing  claims  of  Science  and  the 
humanities,  such  as  that  existing  at  the  moment 
in  the  Public  Schools,  of  a  classical  training,  with- 
out Science,  for  some,  and  a  modern  side,  admitting 
it  in  varying  degrees,  for  others,  and  a  ''  pull-devil, 
pull-baker  "  tug-of-war  between  them  for  the  best 
brains,  with  tradition  and  social  standing  to  help 
the  one  side,  and  "a  sound  commercial  training" 
on  the  other?  I  confess  that  to  me  this  com- 
promise seems  eminently  unsatisfactory,  and  I 
believe  it  to  be  only  a  temporary  phase  in  the  re- 


THE  PLACE  OF  SCIENCE  IN  THE  SCHOOL      7 

adjustment,  everywhere  going  on,  of  education  to 
national  needs.  I  believe  that  we  shall  come  to 
see  that  Science  is  far  too  valuable  an  element 
of  education  to  be  left  out  in  any  single  case. 
For  some — for  the  majority  I  have  little  doubt — 
it  must  not  only  form  part  of  the  general  founda- 
tion course  on  which  any  later  lines  of  specialisa- 
tion must  be  built,  but  also,  in  some  of  its  many 
branches,  furnish  the  chief  means  of  that  later 
specialisation.  But  even  for  those  who  will  turn 
away  from  the  pursuit  of  Science  at  this  last 
stage,  and  devote  themselves  to  the  more  literary 
studies,  I  hold  that  a  preliminary  course  of  Science 
is  no  less  valuable  and  no  less  necessary.  In  the 
first  place  it  is  necessary  in  order  to  enable  the 
child  to  discover,  or  reveal,  his  natural  bent  and 
aptitude — the  discovery  of  which  depends  so 
much  on  opportunity  for  trial  and  presence  of 
sufficient  stimulus.  We  must  not  take  for  granted 
that  natural  aptitude,  like  murder,  always  ''  will 
out."  If  strong,  of  course  it  will,  under  any 
circumstances  ;  but  most  children  have  not  got 
strong  aptitudes,  and  yet  have  some,  though  they 
may  not  be  strong  enough  to  come  out  under 
adverse  circumstances.  Many  a  boy  who  goes 
through  the  classical  course  without  special  in- 
terest or  ability,  and  finally  drifts  into  one  of  the 
''learned"  professions,  which  he  only  helps  to 
overcrowd,  or  into  office-work,  because,  though 
he  cannot  do  that  with  success,  he  has  learned 


8        BROAD  LINES   IN  SCIENCE  TEACHING 

to  do  nothing  else — to  say  nothing  of  the  still 
completer  failures — might,  if  he  had  had  a  wider 
range  of  interests  opened  to  him  at  school,  have 
discovered  aptitudes  which,  as  it  was,  lay  un- 
touched until  they  became  useless  for  want  of 
exercise.  I  need  hardly  stop  to  point  out  that 
a  similar  atrophy  of  powers  and  motives  might 
take  place  if  we  thought  to  remedy  matters  by 
simply  substituting  Science  in  the  place  hitherto 
held  by  the  dead  languages.  The  general  course 
would  still  be  too  narrow.  We  want  in  this 
earlier  stage  that  covers,  for  most,  the  chief  years 
of  school  training — those  up  to  the  age  of  fif- 
teen or  sixteen — as  wide  a  course  as  is  compatible 
with  real  work  and  real  progress  (and  that  is  more 
a  matter  of  teaching  methods  than  of  the  num- 
ber of  hours  devoted  to  it)  in  each  subject  taken 
up,  so  that  no  power  or  interest  the  child  has  may 
be  entirely  untouched  and  undetected.  In  this 
course  Science  must  have  a  place,  and  not  for 
this  reason  only.  Science  is  a  valuable  part  of 
education  not  only  from  its  practical  utility  and 
its  appeal  to  so  many  living  interests,  but  also 
as  an  important  element  in  general  culture.  In 
an  age  when  scientific  discovery  is  progressing 
with  extraordinary  rapidity,  when  scientific  ideas 
are  not  only  themselves  undergoing  constant 
development,  but  are  transforming  our  ideas  on 
most  other  subjects  as  well,  when  the  methods 
of  Science  are  being  applied  to  all  branches  of 


THE  PLACE  OF  SCIENCE  IN  THE  SCHOOL      9 

enquiry,  and  its  theories  form  no  small  part  of 
the  intellectual  background  of  our  thoughts,  one 
who  had  no  knowledge  of  the  conceptions  with 
which  Science  deals,  its  methods  of  enquiry  and 
the  generalisations  to  which  it  leads,  would  be, 
so  far  as  the  intellectual  culture  of  the  time  is 
concerned,  a  pauper  and  an  alien.  This  I  take 
to  be  one  of  the  main  purposes  of  that  part  of 
education  that  lies  within  the  school :  not  only 
to  develop  a  sound  body  and  sound  character, 
not  only  to  equip  for  doing  some  work  in  the 
world,  but  no  less  to  give,  or  at  least  to  begin 
to  give,  some  power  of  obtaining  and  dealing 
with  new  knowledge,  and  some  breadth  of  interest 
and  mental  background  to  give  it  perspective 
and  bring  it  into  relation  with  the  rest.  And  this ! 
is  the  real  ground  for  making  Science,  in  some 
form,  a  necessary  part  of  education  for  all,  not 
only  for  the  future  specialist.  Quite  apart  from 
its  practical  value  in  the  greater  part  of  the 
world*s  work,  we  cannot  do  without  some  training 
in  scientific  method,  and  some  background  of 
scientific  knowledge,  any  more  than  we  can  do 
without  some  knowledge  of  history  and  literature, 
to  enable  us  to  enter  the  world  of  thought  and 
feeling,  and  be  more  than  wage-earners  or  idle 
pleasure-seekers,  but  men  and  women  whose  eyes 
are  opened  to  something  of  the  wonder  and 
beauty,  and  something  of  the  meaning,  of  the 
world  in  which  we  live. 


lo       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

If  this  point  of  view  is  accepted,  we  are  now 
in  a  position  to  answer  more  definitely  the  ques- 
tion how  large  a  place  Science  should  occupy  in 
the  School  curriculum.  It  is  assumed  that  it 
should  form  a  part,  and  a  considerable  part,  for 
all,  during  at  least  a  part  of  the  school  course.  If 
together  with  Science  we  reckon  mathematics — 
taught,  in  the  earlier  stages  at  least,  as  an  experi- 
mental science  in  which  nothing  is  accepted  with- 
out direct  evidence,  and  submitted  to  the  fullest 
possible  verification — and  also  the  various  kinds 
of  practical  work  (gardening,  cookery,  care  of 
animals,  woodwork,  measurement  of  all  kinds, 
and  so  on),  out  of  which  Science  should  grow, 
and  which  should  be  intimately  connected  with  it 
throughout  the  whole  course,  this  group  of  sub- 
jects should,  it  seems  to  me,  in  the  earlier  or 
general  stage  of  education,  up  to  the  age  of  six- 
teen or  so,  occupy  as  large  a  place  in  the  school 
time-table  as  the  other  equally  important  group  of 
studies  dealing  with  language,  literature,  and  the 
arts.  After  this  age  the  equal  balance  of  the  two 
groups  need  no  longer  be  maintained  ;  it  is  better 
then,  as  the  time  when  ambitions  begin  to  awake 
and  the  needs  of  the  future  career  become  more 
evident,  to  let  the  main  part  of  time  and  effort  be 
given  to  those  studies  which  bear  more  directly 
on  these  needs — though  never  to  the  entire 
neglect  of  some  belonging  to  the  other  group  ;  in 
order  that,  while  the  real  interests  and  capacities 


THE  PLACE  OF  SCIENCE  IN  THE  SCHOOL    ii 

may  now  be  developed  to  the  utmost,  we  should 
not  let  any  narrow  view  of  practical  utility  in  the 
form  of  professional  or  examination  requirements 
lead  teacher  or  parent  or  pupil  to  forget  that 
behind  and  beyond  these  lie  the  requirements  of 
life  itself,  among  which  some  range  of  powers,  of 
interests,  and  of  motives  is  by  no  means  the 
least. 

But  to  decide  how  much  time  shall  be  allotted 
to  a  subject  in  the  school  time-table  is,  after  all, 
of  minor  importance  ;  what  matters  is  the  way  in 
which  the  time  is  spent.  I  confess  to  being  one 
of  those  in  whose  view  method  of  teaching  is 
more  important  than  subject-matter.  And  here 
again  the  why  must  determine  not  only  the  z<ohat, 
but  the  how.  In  the  later  stages,  where  specialisa- 
tion is  not  only  permissible,  but  necessary,  each 
branch  of  Science  that  is  taken  must  be  taught  as 
thoroughly  as  possible.  That  is  the  time  when 
we  want  the  boy  to  know,  if  not  quite  **  every- 
thing about  something "  (we  are  not  quite  so 
blind  or  so  conceited  as  that),  at  least  as  much  as 
we  can  teach  him,  or — to  put  it  better — as  much 
as  with  our  help  he  can  teach  himself.  But  in 
the  earlier  stages  our  aim  must  be  quite  different, 
to  teach  him  something  about — well,  not  our 
"  everything,"  perhaps,  but  his  "  everything  " — 
the  external  world  as  it  presents  itself  to  him  ; 
not,  that  is,  in  the  form  of  "  botany "  or 
"  mechanics "     or     "  electricity,"     still     less     as 


12       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING  : 

I 

''matter,"  "force,"  ''gravitation,"  "evolution,"  : 
and  the  other  ways  in  which  we  cheat  ourselves  < 
into  supposing  we  know  all  about  a  thing  by  ^ 
naming  it ;  but  rather  in  the  form  of  interest  j 
leading  to  investigation  of  all  his  surroundings,  ] 
probably  viewed  at  first  (as  by  his  ancestors  j 
before  him)  under  the  guise  of  the  old  "  four  I 
elements,"  and  still  more  probably  realised  as  j 
living  nature,  what  things  do  rather  than  what  | 
they  are,  and  especially  the  way  in  which  plants  \ 
and  animals  behave.  To  the  child  it  is  all  i 
"nature-study,"  without  division  into  separate  | 
"sciences";  and  though  the  teacher  must  have  : 
some  system  in  the  lines  of  investigation  followed,  \ 
there  is  no  need  to  make  the  child  conscious  of  it  ' 
until  the  need  of  some  such  division  presents  i 
itself  to  him.  Then  the  different  lines  of  inves-  | 
tigation  will  gradually  narrow  themselves  down  \ 
into  separate  "sciences" — probably  following  the 
main  lines  of  their  historical  development,  until 
finally  the  time  comes  for  conscious  choice,  in  \ 
view  of  their  number  and  growing  complexity,  of  i 
some  special  group  to  study  more  particularly  for  - 
a  time. 

And   throughout   the   whole    of    this   general  i 
course  of  gradually  systematised  enquiry   there  j 
are,  it  seems  to  me,  two  main  principles  of  method 
to  keep  in  mind,  arising,  as  I  said  just  now,  from  ! 
the  main  purpose  that  we  have  in  view  in  admit- 
ting Science,  in  any  form,  into  the  school  course.  J 


THE  PLACE  OF  SCIENCE  IN  THE  SCHOOL    13 

The  first  principle  is  that  what  we  want  to  give  is 
rather  a  scientific  training  than  a  mass  of  facts  to , 
be  remembered.  In  other  words,  it  is  the  method  | 
of  investigation  that  is  the  main  thing,  the  method 
of  procedure  by  observation,  experiment,  and 
inference,  followed  by  some  attempt  at  verifica- 
tion, and  resulting  in  some  "  working  hypothesis  " 
or  general  law,  itself  to  be  made  the  subject  of 
further  experiment  and  verification.  I  do  not,  of 
course,  mean  that  the  method  is  to  be  explained, 
or  any  such  nomenclature  used  about  it ;  what  I 
mean  is  that  it  must  from  the  very  first  be  a 
method  of  research,  of  finding  answers  to  one's 
own  questions,  and  so  of  gradually  discovering 
how  to  set  about  finding  answers  to  questions, 
and  thus  becoming  master  of  a  method  that  can 
be  applied  to  other  subjects  and  other  kinds  of 
enquiry.  It  does  not  matter  whether  we  call  the 
method  **  heuristic  *'  or  not.  Names  are  generally 
the  cause  of  bitter  controversies — more  often  than 
the  facts  that  they  stand  for,  because  to  none  of 
the  disputants  does  the  name  cover  or  convey 
quite  the  same  set  of  facts.  Whatever  we  call  it, 
this  is  the  true  scientific  method,  and  to  teach 
that  is  the  chief  value  of  Science  in  the  school. 

The  second  principle  of  which  I  spoke  is  that 
Science  should  not  be  divorced  in  our  children's 
minds  from  the  actual  happenings  of  everyday 
experience  :  that  iJi£mistry,  for  example,  is  not 
something  unusual  that  takes  place  in  test-tubes 


14       BROAD   LINES   IN    SCIENCE  TEACHING  ! 

in  a  laboratory,   but  the  investigation  (by  such  j 
means  as  these)  of  things  taking  place  all  round 
us,  conditioning  visible  changes  of  obvious  in- 
terest  to   us.     For  that  reason,   as    I   said,  the  1 
Science  in  the  class-room  and  practical  work  must  i 
go  hand  in  hand.     The  garden  is  the  real  start-  \  / ; 
ing-point  of  one  half  of  Science,  as  the  house  is  f  | 
of   the  other.     We  want   our   pupils  to   realise 
continually   that   all    their  investigations   in   the  ! 
class-room  or  laboratory  have  a  direct  bearing  ; 
upon  life  and  direct  applications  to  every  kind  of  ' 
work,  and  at  the  same  time  a  remoter  bearing  on  j 
other  kinds  of  knowledge.     So  that,  while  on  the 
one  hand  we  want,  as  one  result  of  our  teaching,  ' 
to   bring   chemistry    into    the    kitchen,    and   the 
scientific  habit  of  mind  into  all  our  everyday  life, 
and,   as  another  result,  to  give  some  power  of 
appreciating  such  problems  as  those  that  underlie  ' 
improvement  of  the  aeroplane,  the  motor  vehicle,  ! 
wireless  telegraphy,  and  other  inventions  of  our 
time ;  on  the  other  hand,  we  want  also  to  lead  to  i 
some  comprehension  of  the  great  generalisations,  j 
such  as  evolution,  or  the  conservation  of  energy,  j 
or    the    bacteriological    nature    of  disease,    that  i 
underlie  all  modern  thought.     It  would,  of  course,  I 
be  absurd  to  suppose  that  all  this  can  be  done  \ 
with    every   child,   and   by  the  age   of   sixteen.  ■ 
What  is  wanted  is  that  these  lines  of  enquiry  | 
should   be   so   selected,   and   so  followed,  as  to  ! 
make  something  of  this  possible,  according  to  the  ; 


THE  PLACE  OF  SCIENCE  IN  THE  SCHOOL    15 

capacity  of  the  learner,  even   to  those  who  will 

not  be,  in  any  sense,  scientific  specialists  ;  and  so 

also,  let  me  add  in  conclusion,  that  the  result  of 

all  our  Science  teaching  should  be  to  give,  not  the  i 

conceit  of  knowledge,  but  an  intellectual  humility 

that  recoofnises  that  all  we  can  know  and  do  does  , 

.  .    .  1 

but  open  up  fresh  horizons  of  the  limitless  un-  ( 

known. 


II 

THE   SCOPE   OF  NATURE-STUDY 

By  EDWARD  THOMAS 

WHAT    is    to    come    of    our    nature 
teaching  in  schools  ?     What  does  it 
aim    at  ?     Whence    does    it    arise  ? 
In  part,  no  doubt,  it  is  due  to  our 
desire  to  implant  information.     It  is  all  very  well 
for  the  poet  to  laugh — 

When  Science  has  discovered  something  more, 
We  shall  be  happier  than  we  were  before ; 

but  that  is  the  road  we  are  on  at  a  high  rate  of 
speed.  If  we  are  fortunate  we  shall  complete 
our  inventory  of  the  contents  of  heaven  and 
earth  by  the  time  when  the  last  man  or  woman 
wearing  the  last  pair  of  spectacles  has  decided 
that,  after  all,  it  is  a  very  good  world,  and  one 
which  it  is  quite  possible  to  live  in.  That,  how- 
ever, is  an  end  which  would  not  in  itself  be  a 
sufficient  inducement  to  push  on  towards  it ;  still 
less  can  such  a  vision  have  set  us  upon  the  road. 
Three  things,  perhaps,  have  more  particularly 
persuaded  us  to  pay  our  fare  and  mount  for 
somewhere — three   things  which   are   really  not 

i6 


THE   SCOPE    OF    NATURE-STUDY  17 

to  be  sharply  distinguished,  though  it  is  con- 
venient to  consider  them  separately.  First,  the 
literary  and  philosophic  movement  imperfectly 
described  as  the  romantic  revival  and  return  to 
nature  of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries. 
Poets  and  philosophers  need  private  incomes, 
state  porridge,  and  what  not ;  but  literature  and 
philosophy  is  a  force,  and  for  a  century  it  has 
followed  a  course  which  was  entered  in  the  period 
of  the  French  Revolution.  This  literature  shows 
man  in  something  like  his  true  position  in  an 
infinite  universe,  and  shows  him  particularly  in 
his  physical  environment  of  sea,  sky,  mountain, 
rivers,  woods,  and  the  other  animals.  Second, 
the  enormous,  astonishing,  perhaps  excessive, 
growth  of  towns  from  which  the  only  immediate 
relief  is  the  pure  air  and  sun  of  the  country,  a 
relief  which  is  sought  by  the  urban  multitudes  in 
large  but  insufficient  numbers  for  too  short  a 
time.  Third,  the  triumph  of  science,  of  sys- 
tematised  observation.  Helped,  no  doubt,  by  the 
force  of  industrialism — to  which  it  gave  help  in 
return — science  has  had  a  great  triumph.  At 
one  time  it  was  supposed  to  have  fatally  under- 
mined Poetry,  Romance,  Religion,  because  it 
had  confused  the  minds  of  some  poets  and  critics. 
These  three  things  considered.  Nature-study 
is  inevitable.  Literature  sends  us  to  Nature 
principally  for  Joy,  joy  of  the  senses,  of  the 
whole  frame,  of  the  contemplative  mind,  and  of 


i8       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

the  soul,  joy  which  if  it  is  found  complete  in 
these  several  ways  might  be  called  religious. 
Science  sends  us  to  Nature  for  Knowledge.  In- 
dustrialism and  the  great  towns  send  us  to 
Nature  for  Health,  that  we  may  go  on  manu- 
facturing efficiently,  or,  if  we  think  right  and 
have  the  power,  that  we  may  escape  from  them. 
But  it  would  be  absurd  to  separate  Joy,  Know- 
ledge, and  Health,  except  as  we  separate  for 
convenience  those  things  which  have  sent  us  out 
to  seek  for  them  ;  and  Nature  teaching,  if  it  is 
good,  will  never  overlook  one  of  these  three. 
Joy,  through  Knowledge,  on  a  foundation  of 
Health,  is  what  we  appear  to  seek. 

There  is  no  longer  any  need  to  hesitate  in 
speaking  of  joy  in  connection  with  schools.  Yet 
might  we  not  still  complain,  as  Thomas  Traherne 
did  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago  : — 

**  There  was  never  a  tutor  that  did  properly 
teach  Felicity,  though  that  be  the  mistress  of 
all  other  sciences.  Nor  did  any  of  us  study 
these  things  but  as  aliena,  which  we  ought  to 
have  studied  as  our  enjoyments.  We  studied 
to  inform  our  knowledge,  but  knew  not  for 
what  end  we  so  studied.  And  for  lack  of 
aiming  at  a  certain  end  we  erred  in  the 
manner." 

If  we  cannot  somehow  have  a  Professor  of 
Felicity  we  are  undone.  Perhaps  Nature  her- 
self   will     aid.       Her    presence     will     certainly 


UNWk 


THE   SCOPE   OF    NATURE-STUDY  19 

make  for  felicity  by  enlarging  her  pupil  for 
a  time  from  the  cloistered  life  which  modern 
towns  and  their  infinite  conveniences  and  servi- 
tudes encourage.  Tolstoy  has  said  that  in  the 
open  air  *'new  relations  are  formed  between  pupil 
and  teacher :  freer,  simpler,  and  more  truthful "  ; 
and  certainly  his  walk  on  a  winter  night  with 
his  pupils,  chatting  and  telling  tales  (see  The 
School  at  Ydsnaya  Polydna,  by  Leo  Tolstoy) 
leaves  an  impression  of  electrical  activity  and 
felicity  in  the  young  and  old  minds  of  the  party 
which  is  hardly  to  be  surpassed.  And  how  more 
than  by  Nature's  noble  and  uncontaminated 
forms  can  a  sense  of  beauty  be  nourished.** 
Then,  too,  the  reading  of  great  poetry  might 
well  be  associated  with  the  study  of  Nature,  since 
there  is  no  great  poetry  which  can  be  dissevered 
from  Nature,  while  modern  poets  have  all  dipped 
their  pens  in  the  sunlight  and  wind  and  great 
waters,  and  appeal  most  to  those  who  most  re- 
semble them  in  their  loves.  The  great  religious 
books,  handed  down  to  us  by  people  who  lived 
in  closer  intercourse  with  Nature  than  many  of 
us,  cannot  be  understood  by  indoor  children  and 
adults.  Whether  connected  with  this  or  that 
form  of  religion  or  not,  whether  taken  as  "in- 
timations of  immortality"  or  not,  the  most  pro- 
found and  longest  remembered  feelings  are  often 
those  derived  from  the  contact  of  Nature  with 
the  child's  mind. 


20       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

Of  health,  though  there  are  exactly  as  many 
physicians  as  patients,  it  is  unnecessary  to  say 
anything,  except  that  one  of  the  pieces  of  know- 
ledge— I  do  not  speak  of  information — which 
science  has  left  to  us  is  that  movement  and  the 
working  of  the  brain  in  pure  air  and  sunlight  is 
good  for  body  and  soul,  especially  if  joy  is  aiding. 

Knowledge  aids  joy  by  discipline,  by  in- 
creasing the  sphere  of  enjoyment,  by  showing 
us  in  animals,  in  plants,  for  example,  what  life 
is,  how  our  own  is  related  to  theirs,  showing  us 
in  fact  our  position,  responsibilities,  and  debts, 
among  the  other  inhabitants  of  the  earth.  Pur- 
sued out  of  doors,  where  those  creatures,  moving 
and  still,  have  their  life  and  their  beauty,  know- 
ledge is  real.  The  senses  are  invited  then  to 
the  subtlest  and  most  delightful  training,  and 
have  before  them  an  immeasurable  fresh  field, 
not  a  field  like  that  of  books,  full  of  old  opinions, 
but  one  with  which  every  eye  and  brain  can  have 
new  vital  intercourse.  It  is  open  to  all  to  make 
discoveries  as  to  the  forms  and  habits  of  things, 
and  care  should  be  taken  to  preserve  the  child 
from  the  most  verbose  part  of  modern  literature, 
that  which  repeats  in  multiplied  ill-chosen  words 
stale  descriptions  of  birds  and  flowers,  etc., 
coupled  with  trivial  fancies  and  insincere  inven- 
tions. Let  us  not  take  the  study,  the  lamp,  and 
the  ink  out  of  doors,  as  we  used  to  take  wild 
life — having  killed  it  and  placed  it  in  spirits  of 


THE   SCOPE   OF    NATURE-STUDY  21 

wine — indoors.  Let  us  also  be  careful  to  have 
knowledge  as  well  as  enthusiasm  in  our  masters. 
Enthusiasm  alone  is  not  enthusiasm.  There 
must,  at  some  stage,  be  some  anatomy,  classifica- 
tion, pure  brainwork ;  the  teacher  must  be  the 
equal  in  training  of  the  mathematician,  and  he 
must  be  alive,  which  I  never  heard  was  a 
necessity  for  mathematicians.  But  not  anatomy 
for  all,  perhaps  ;  for  some  it  may  be  impossible, 
and  a  study  of  colours,  curves,  perfumes,  voices 
— a  thousand  things — might  be  substituted  for  it. 
Yet  nature-study  is  not  designed  to  produce 
naturalists  any  more  than  music  is  taught  in  order 
to  make  musicians.  If  you  produce  nothing  but 
naturalists  you  fail,  and  you  will  produce  very 
few.  The  aim  of  the  study  is  to  widen  the  culture 
of  child  and  man,  to  do  systematically  what  Mark 
Pattison  tells  us  in  his  dry  way  he  did  for  him- 
self, by  walking  and  outdoor  sports,  then — at 
the  late  age  of  seventeen — by  collecting  and 
reading  such  books  as  The  Natural  History  of 
Selborne,  and  finally  by  a  slow  process  of  transi- 
tion from  natural  history  into  "the  more 
abstract  poetic  emotion  ...  a  conscious  and 
declared  poetical  sentiment  and  a  devoted  read- 
ing of  the  poets."  Geology  did  not  come  for 
another  ten  years  "to  complete  the  cycle  of 
thought,  and  to  give  that  intellectual  foundation 
which  is  required  to  make  the  testimony  of  the 
eye,  roaming  over  an  undulating  surface,  fruitful 


22       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

and  satisfying.  When  I  came  in  after  years  to 
read  The  Prelude  I  recognised,  as  if  it  were  my 
own  history  which  was  being  told,  the  steps  by 
which  the  love  of  the  country  boy  for  his  hills 
and  moors  grew  into  poetical  susceptibility  for  all 
imaginative  presentations  of  beauty  in  every  direc- 
tion." The  botany,  etc.,  would  naturally  be 
related  to  the  neighbourhood  of  school  or  home ; 
for  there  is  no  parish  or  district  of  which  it  might 
not  be  said,  as  Jefferies  and  Thoreau  each  said 
of  his  own,  that  it  is  a  microcosm.  By  this  means 
the  natural  history  may  easily  be  linked  to  a 
preliminary  study  of  hill  and  valley  and  stream, 
the  positions  of  houses,  mills,  and  villages,  and  the 
reasons  for  them,  and  the  food  supply,  and  so 
on,  and  this  in  turn  leads  on  to,  nay,  involves, 
all  that  is  most  real  in  geography  and  history. 
The  landscape  retains  the  most  permanent  marks 
of  the  past,  and  a  wise  examinafion  of  it  should 
evoke  the  beginnings  of  the  majestic  sentiment 
of  our  oneness  with  the  future  and  the  past,  just 
as  natural  history  should  help  to  give  the  child 
a  sense  of  his  oneness  with  all  forms  of  life.  To 
put  it  at  its  lowest,  some  such  cycle  of  knowledge 
is  needed  if  a  generation  that  insists  more  and 
more  on  living  in  the  country,  or  spending  many 
weeks  there,  is  not  to  be  bored  or  to  be  com- 
pelled to  entrench  itself  behind  the  imported 
amusements  of  the  town. 


Ill 


THE  TEACHING  OF  NATURE-STUDYi 

By  CLOTILDE  VON  WYSS 

EVIDENCE  is  not  wanting,  that  during 
the    mental    growth    of   any   individual, 
there   is  a  revision  of  the  chief  tracks 
and  phases  in  the  evolution  of  any  human 
activity,  and  that  the  training  which  recognises 
and  follows  most  closely  the  same  broad  lines  is 
the  most  efficient  and  successful. 

Thus  tracing-  the  course  of  the  evolution  of 
the  scientific  interest  backwards,  it  is  clearly  dis- 
cernible, that  our  academic  sciences  have  had 
their  origin  in  investigations  which  are  under- 
taken chiefly  for  purposes  of  practical  utility,  and 
that  this  phase  of  science,  in  its  turn,  emerged 
from  the  general  reaction  that  the  young  mind 

^  This  paper  treats  of  the  work  of  young  children,  and  is 
thus  not  strictly  within  the  scope  of  a  book  dealing  with  secondary 
education  ;  but  such  early  work  well  done  makes  so  much  differ- 
ence to  the  attitude  towards  science  later  on,  that  no  apology  is 
made  for  including  it.  For  references  to  similar  work  at  a  later 
stage,  cf.  Mr.  batter's  paper  on  Biology. — Ed. 

23 


24      BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

shows  to  the  stimulus  of  its  natural  environment. 
Although  nature-study  means  the  study  of  nature 
generally,  yet  in  its  more  restricted  and  technical 
sense  it  must  be  associated  with  the  early  phase 
in  the  evolution  of  the  scientific  interest,  and 
must  concern  itself  with  aims,  scope,  and  methods 
that  are  in  tune  with  those  particular  mental  con- 
ditions. It  is  therefore  essential  for  any  teacher 
of  nature-study  that  he  focus  his  attention  both 
on  the  general  attitude  of  the  normal  child 
towards  his  surroundings,  and  upon  any  records 
of  the  conduct  of  primitive  man  to  whom  the 
world,  too,  is  ''  so  new  and  all." 

Interest  in  the  natural  environment  and  ob- 
jective existence  generally  is  invariably  present, 
and  from  an  attitude  of  attention  and  a  state  of 
interest  there  arise  the  more  definite  mental 
states  of  wonder  and  curiosity  in  response  to 
influence  of  the  outer  world.  This  vague  state 
of  wonder  contains  elements  of  awe,  fear,  ad- 
miration, and  other  emotions  all  blended  together 
in  an  ''ah!"  state,  from  which  any  one  may 
become  more  definitely  differentiated  and  pre- 
dominant. Similarly  in  that  monkeyish  curiosity 
we  see  a  seed  that  will  give  rise  to  the  most 
varied  forms  of  intellectual  activity.  Even  at  an 
early  stage  it  expresses  itself  in  the  tendency 
to  investigate  everything  and  to  a  general  de- 
structiveness.  The  investigations  are  generally 
spontaneous  reactions  to  the  new  and  strange  that 


THE  TEACHING  OF   NATURE-STUDY  25 

often  claims  quite  involuntary  attention.  They 
are  fitful  and  superficial,  and  any  conclusions  that 
may  be  arrived  at  tend  to  be  illogical. 

The  most  characteristic  feature  of  these  hasty 
conclusions  and  interpretations  of  the  observa- 
tions made  is,  that  they  are  the  result  of  reading 
man  and  his  ways  into  all  natural  phenomena. 
At  the  time  that  a  child  enters  upon  school  life 
he  is  still  at  this  animistic  stage,  and  his  tendency 
to  personify  all  processes  and  objects  of  nature 
finds  its  parallel  in  the  myths  and  legends  of  the 
young  human  race. 

The  characteristics,  therefore,  that  are  most 
prominent  in  a  normal  child  and  that  directly 
concern  nature-study  are — 

1.  Intense  interest  in  the  objective  world,  es- 
pecially in  all  living  things,  and  desire  to  investi- 
gate and  to  understand. 

2.  Great  mental  and  bodily  activity  and  alert- 
ness and  incapacity  for  prolonged  concentra- 
tion. 

3.  Vivid  imagination  and  strong  emotion,  which 
often  lead  to  hasty  conclusion  and  interpretation 
on  the  one  hand,  and  creativeness  and  inventive- 
ness on  the  other. 

The  forecroinor  are   definite  data  which  must 

o  o 

never  be  lost  sight  of  in  determiningr  the  selection 
of  our  material  for  study  and  our  method  of 
approach.  It  must  further  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the    child    is    cliianging,    passing    from    a    fitful 


26       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

and  often  emotional  attitude  towards  the  world 
of  nature  to  a  stage  of  more  purely  intellec- 
tual interest  and  greater  concentration ;  and 
that  therefore  only  a  scheme  of  work  which  is 
progressive  both  as  regards  subject  -  matter 
and  method  can  be  considered  as  vital  and 
organic. 

Since  nature-study  is  essentially  a  particular 
attitude  of  mind,  which  generates  a  particular 
method  of  approach,  it  is  absolutely  unrestricted 
in  its  choice  of  material  for  study.  In  fact,  as  it 
represents  the  reaction  of  a  young  mind  to  the 
direct  and  immediate  influence  of  an  unexplored 
but  a  priori  interesting  environment,  the  more 
clearly  the  latter  is  shown  as  a  complete  whole, 
untouched  by  the  analysis  and  generalisation  of 
scientific  thought,  the  more  perfectly  will  the 
conditions  of  nature-study  be  fulfilled  both  in 
letter  and  spirit. 

The  practice  of  choosing  for  a  course  of  lessons 
objects  of  nature  which  belong  to  the  same  class, 
e.g.  rodents,  insects,  composite  flowers,  cannot 
be  condemned  too  strongly.  The  very  fact  that 
we  have  a  class  or  group  shows  that  analysis 
and  selection  within  the  realm  of  nature  has 
already  been  made,  and  generalisation  and 
classification  has  followed,  leaving  the  children 
to  ruminate  instead  of  to  browse  at  their  liking. 
We  speak  so  fluently  in  educational  discussions 
of  the  need  of  passing  from  the  particular  and 


THE  TEACHING  OF   NATURE-STUDY  27 

individual  to  the  general  and  to  classification, 
but  again  and  again  we  find  the  ground  all  suit- 
ably prepared  that  should  be  virgin  soil  for  the 
children. 

It  is,  nevertheless,  true  that  the  topics  in  a 
scheme  of  study  should  be  connected,  but  it  is 
not  logical  connection  that  is  the  desirable.  Far 
better  results  are  obtained  if  the  subjects  are 
psychologically  connected  in  experience,  that  is, 
if  those  threads  in  the  web  of  nature  that  bear 
definite  relation  to  one  another  are  presented  in 
close  connection,  so  that  by  thought  association 
the  picture  of  the  whole  will  remain  intact. 
Thus,  lessons  on  a  particular  pond,  including  the 
study  of  the  conditions  that  prevail  there,  as  well 
as  of  its  inhabitants,  would  make  a  suitable 
series,  as  long  as  we  do  not  consider  the  subject 
under  the  following  headings :  (a)  Physical 
conditions,  (d)  Plant  life,  (c)  Animal  life ;  this 
would  again  imply  premature  classification. 
Another  profitable  course  can  be  constructed  on 
an  imaginary  walk  through  a  lane  in  autumn, 
when  coloured  and  falling  leaves,  ripe  hips  and 
haws,  deserted  nests,  gossamer,  toadstools,  etc., 
might  be  studied  in  detail,  as  they  are  met  with 
in  actual  experience  or  during  an  imaginary  ex- 
pedition. No  difficulty  will  be  experienced  in 
selecting  many  courses  of  lessons  arranged  on 
this  plan.  This  is  specially  true  of  classes  in 
country  districts,  where  direct  experience  of  the 


28      BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

region  as  a  whole  at  any  particular  time  can  be 
supplied  or  depended  upon  ;  but  even  in  cities 
abundance  of  material  is  available  which  in  its 
setting  does  not  entirely  transcend  the  children's 
own  experience. 

It  stands  to  reason,  that  the  seasonal  aspects 
of  nature  will  be  strongly  emphasised  throughout, 
not  only  because  the  appearance  of  things  is 
"just  so"  because  of  the  particular  season,  not 
only  because  it  is  easier  and  cheaper  to  obtain 
specimens  that  are  in  season,  but  very  specially 
because  our  own  mental  and  physical  conditions 
vary  with  the  seasons  and  we  are  naturally  more 
sympathetically  inclined  towards  things  that 
sound  the  same  elemental  note. 

These,  then,  seem  to  be  absolutely  essential 
factors  in  nature-study,  viz.  that  it  precedes 
analysis  and  specialisation  and  is  unrestricted  in 
its  selection  of  material ;  and  that  it  invariably 
deals  with  actual  material  leading  to  direct  sense 
experience. 

The  question  may  be  asked,  how  can  work  be 
made  progressive,  if  we  cannot  reserve  certain 
material  for  junior  forms  and  other  material  for 
older  pupils  ?  It  is  on  the  whole  preferable  to 
lead  the  children  every  year  to  **  fresh  woods  and 
pastures  new,"  yet  this  is  not  done  because  the 
study  of  one  creature  and  its  ways  is  necessarily 
more  difficult  than  another,  but  simply  in  order 
that  during  their  school  course  their  experience 


THE  TEACHING  OF  NATURE-STUDY  29 

of  the  world  of  nature  may  be  as  wide  as  ever 
possible.  Under  certain  circumstances,  however, 
as  for  instance  in  the  case  of  the  nature-study  in 
our  crowded  and  poorer  city  schools,  it  is  often 
necessary  to  study  some  one  or  more  of  its 
subjects  during  several  consecutive  years.  Since 
advance  in  nature-study  does  not  primarily 
depend  on  wealth  of  material,  it  is  incumbent 
on  every  teacher  to  ensure  progress  in  method, 
and  the  ideal  state  of  things  is  reached  when  the 
method  of  teaching  is  so  vital  that  it  gradually 
changes  with  the  claims  of  the  changing  mental 
condition  of  the  pupil  and  opportunities  are  such 
that  ever  fresh  concrete  material  can  be  pre- 
sented— then  there  is  at  once  intensity  of  study 
and  breadth  of  outlook. 

A  few  suggestions  indicating  roughly  how  the 
point  of  view  and  consequently  method  of  ap- 
proach may  be  changed  as  the  children  grow 
older  may  be  worth  considering.  They  are 
based  chiefly  on  some  fundamental  facts  of  de- 
veloping childhood,  and  imply  three  stages, 
which  are,  however,  in  no  way  definitely  separated 
from  each  other :  on  the  contrary,  elements  of 
all  three  stao-es  are  noticeable  throug^hout  the 
years  of  childhood,  but  at  different  periods  of 
growth  different  elements  are  predominant. 


30       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 
STAGE   I    (age    7    AND    UNDER). 

This  is  characterised  by  a  general  interest,  a 
great  curiosity  in  the  outside  world,  chiefly  in 
fellow-beings — in  animals  rather  than  in  plants. 
The  interest  is  not  so  much  centred  upon  the 
appearance  as  upon  the  activity  of  other  creatures 
— especially  such  activity  as  has  an  obvious 
parallel  in  the  child's  own  life.  This  may  be 
called  the  ''making  acquaintance  stage" — new 
individual  things  are  received  into  the  circle  of 
experience  and  are  ever  afterwards  acquaint- 
ances. The  children  should  therefore  have  un- 
limited opportunity  of  watching  creatures  under 
normal  conditions — frogs,  newts,  and  all  the  vast 
number  of  pond  animals  in  springtime,  chickens, 
butterflies,  bees,  ants,  rabbits,  mice,  later  cater- 
pillars, wasps,  earwigs,  and  birds  in  the  autumn, 
snails,  earthworms,  and  sleeping  creatures  in  the 
still  white  time  of  winter.  Besides  animals  the 
children  should  see  at  different  times  the  running 
stream,  a  pond,  and  the  big  sea.  They  might  be 
taken  out  in  a  strong  wind  and  might  attend  to 
all  details  of  a  heavy  shower  and  a  thunderstorm, 
and  the  effect  of  both.  At  all  times  the  weather 
is  interesting,  and,  at  a  time  when  writing  means 
too  much  conscious  effort,  very  satisfactory 
nature  charts  may  be  constructed  by  little 
children  representing  the  **kind  of  weather" 
graphically    by    colours    instead   of  words;    the 


THE  TEACHING  OF   NATURE-STUDY  3i 

meaning  of  each  colour  being  definitely  fixed  by 
common  consent.  In  a  parallel  column  objects 
of  nature,  studied  at  the  particular  time,  may 
be  represented  in  mass  and  in  colour.  These 
charts,  which  may  be  extended  by  older  pupils 
making  them  more  complex  and  more  accurate, 
are  for  the  children  a  most  attractive  form  of 
representing  the  pageant  of  the  seasons,  being 
at  once  a  demonstration  and  a  record  of  facts 
and  relationships. 

Throughout  this  elementary  work  the  children 
simply  watch  and  express  their  impression  in- 
formally either  to  the  teacher  or  to  each  other, 
if  the  class  is  small.  Feeding  the  animals  is 
always  an  interesting  occupation,  and  children's 
lessons  and  animals'  meals  should  coincide  in 
time  wherever  possible.  Similarly  preparing 
homes  for  animals  kept  temporarily  in  captivity 
is  an  extremely  useful  occupation,  and  quite 
possible  w^ith  small  classes.  The  plan  of  direct- 
ing the  children's  observation  by  a  constant  shower 
of  questions  which  would  cover  the  ground  system- 
atically is  out  of  place — the  children's  way  is  not 
our  way,  and  they  lead  in  this  work. 

Any  expression  of  judgment  and  interpreta- 
tion, any  expression  of  emotion,  should  be 
perfectly  spontaneous  and  free,  and  if  a  certain 
amount  of  definiteness  is  to  be  aimed  at,  brush- 
work  and  drawing  generally  would  afford  the 
most  suitable  opportunity. 


3^       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 
STAGE   II    (age   8   AND   9). 

This  stage  is  characterised  by  excessive  motor 
energy.  It  is  essentially  the  age  at  which  the 
love  of  the  chase  burns,  when  caps  are  thrown 
after  any  and  every  butterfly,  when  heads  of 
flowers  are  knocked  off  with  a  stick,  when  animals 
are  worried  and  teased,  when  a  system  of  drain- 
age is  constructed  in  the  garden  path  after  a 
heavy  shower,  during  which  occupation  you  dig 
**till  you  gently  perspire."  These  deeds  may 
refer  specially  to  boys,  but  the  girls'  ways 
are  not  essentially  different,  they  too  clamour 
for  occupation,  though  it  may  be  in  other 
directions. 

Here  every  form  of  study,  especially  nature- 
study,  should  involve  much  manual  work.  If  a 
topic  of  interest  presents  itself,  everything  that 
wants  making  and  doing  should  be  made  and 
done.  The  following  are  some  illustrative  speci- 
mens of  courses  satisfying  these  conditions  : — 

The  City  Child's  Garden. 

1.  Making  a  small  wooden  box  or  mending  up 
and  strengthening  an  old  cigar-box. 

2.  Painting  the  box  in  some  colour  selected  by 
each  child. 

3.  Drawing  initials  in  capital  letters  and  pre- 
paring a  stencil. 

4.  Stencilling  the  initials  on  front  of  box. 


THE  TEACHING  OF  NATURE-STUDY         33 

5.  Preparing  soil  to  fill  the  box — putting  out 
stones,  etc. 

6.  Setting  sweet  peas  and  sowing  Virginian 
stock. 

7.  Thinning  Virginian  stock. 

8.  Manuring  (Clay's  fertiliser,  mixed  with 
water,  being  administered  with  a  teaspoon). 

9.  Making  trellis-work  for  peas,  fastening  this 
to  box  with  wire,  the  holes  being  bored  with  red- 
hot  knitting-needles. 

10.  Binding  up  the  peas  with  bast. 
Needless  to  say,  careful  observations  are  made 

on  the  plants  throughout. 

Every  Boy's  Aquarium. 

Jam  jars  (glass)  are  cleaned,  string  is  tied 
round  the  top  in  a  particular  way.  Sand  is 
washed  ;  weeds  are  attached  to  stones  and  the 
aquarium  is  fitted  out.  Tadpoles  are  put  in  ; 
implements  are  made  of  hair-pins  for  feeding 
them ;  caddis-worms  are  supplied,  and  experi- 
ments are  made  with  different  materials  with 
which  they  might  build  their  home.  This  work 
can  be  continued  throughout  the  term. 

Similarly  breeding-cases  can  be  made  for 
caterpillars  and  the  life  history  of  the  latter 
studied. 


34      BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 
STAGE   III   (age    10-12). 

Curiosity,  which  has  so  far  led  to  mere  sense 
perception,  is  now  passing  into  a  desire  to  investi- 
gate in  order  to  interpret  and  to  understand. 
The  work  is  becoming  more  intensive.  It  con- 
sists of  the  more  detailed  investigation  of  certain 
more  or  less  isolated  topics  whose  sequence  is 
determined  by  the  march  of  the  seasons.  The 
following  are  some  typical  examples  : — 

As  spring  approaches  man's  thought  is  turned 
towards  the  sowing  of  seed.  This  is  done  accord- 
ing to  tradition,  seeds  being  put  into  the  ground 
and  watered  and  sheltered  ;  and  seedlings  are 
expected  to  appear  after  a  certain  time.  The 
children  wonder  what  the  seeds  do  in  the  ground 
before  "they  come  up,"  and  they  are  invited  to 
peep  into  the  ground  and  look.  This  means  dis- 
turbance— could  the  seed  be  put  into  something 
else  where  the  whole  of  it  may  be  seen.  This 
leads  to  the  question  whether  soil  is  necessary. 
Since  one  element  of  traditional  procedure  has 
thus  been  critically  examined,  the  remaining  ones 
are  certain  to  be  investigated  also.  Is  water 
necessary  for  growing  seeds  ?  What  about  light, 
warmth,  and  air?  What  effect  has  the  absence 
or  presence  of  these  factors  ?  All  these  questions 
lead  to  a  long  series  of  simple  experiments,  in- 
volving the  construction  of  apparatus,  planning 
out  special  contrivances  in  order  to  test  conclu- 


THE  TEACHING   OF  NATURE-STUDY  35 

sions,  and  throughout  the  children  learn  to  watch 
patiently,  to  think  independently,  and  to  form 
conclusions  which  are  truth  to  them,  inasmuch  as 
such  conclusions  satisfy  all  the  claims  which  the 
children  will  make  on  them.  A  similar  series  of 
experiences  and  activities  is  involved  in  the  pot- 
ting of  a  bulb  by  each  child.  It  is  interesting 
to  notice  how  the  significance  may  here  be  estab- 
lished of  mathematical  work,  which  is  attempted 
much  later.  As  the  shoot  appears  above  ground, 
it  is  accurately  measured  with  a  strip  of  paper 
and  the  distance  between  the  two  dots  is  marked 
off  vertically  on  a  sheet  of  drawing-paper,  and 
the  drawing^  of  the  shoot  is  made  in  colour  be- 
tween  the  two  dots.  This  is  repeated  at  equal 
periods  of  time  on  the  same  sheet  of  paper,  and 
it  is  easy  to  see  how  graphs  relating  to  rate  of 
growth  can  be  constructed  from  this.  Thus,  too, 
in  the  study  of  the  snail  when  investigations  are 
being  made  on  the  manner  and  rate  of  crawling, 
the  children  can  measure  the  slimy  track  of  a 
snail  made  in  one  or  two  minutes,  by  means  of 
a  piece  of  cotton  and  a  ruler,  and  represent  the 
exact  number  of  inches  by  an  upright  line ;  the 
distance  crawled  over  in  any  subsequent  two 
minutes  is  similarly  represented  by  vertical  lines 
that  are  equidistant  and  drawn  from  the  same 
horizontal  lines.  The  rate  of  crawl  may  thus  be 
graphically  represented,  and  any  variations  due  to 
fatigue,  perception  of  food,  etc.,  at  once  detected. 


36       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING  ] 

The  whole  of  this  stage  is  characterised  by  the  ' 
pursuit   of   a   definite  line   of   investigation,   by 

more    cautious   judgment,    and    by   more    exact  j 

record.  | 

Space  does  not  permit  to  deal  with  the  com-  \ 

ponent  elements  of  any  one  lesson,  but  it  cannot  ' 

be  emphasised  too  strongly  that  the  greatest  free-  i 

dom  and  absence  of  all  formal  instruction,  in  the  | 

case  of  young  children  at  least,  should  be  allowed  | 

wherever  school  conditions,  such  as  great  size  of  i 

class    or    overcrowded    rooms,    do    not    impose  j 

restrictions.  ; 

Gardening  and  rambles  are  the  most  powerful  j 

aids  for  promoting  efficient  and  healthful  nature-  ' 
study,  and  the  time  is  not  far  when  these  pursuits 

will  form  an  integral  and  organic  part  of   our  i 

school  work.  i 


IV 
BIOLOGY  IN   SCHOOLS 

By  OSWALD  LATTER,  M.A. 

THE  position  of  biology  among  the 
natural  sciences  which  find  a  place  in 
school  curricula  is  rather  peculiar.  An 
enquiry  recently  made  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  British  Association  made  it  clear  that 
in  a  large  number  of  schools  the  introduction  to 
science  consists  of  "  nature-study,"  of  which  a 
large  portion  is  biological  in  character ;  but  it 
was  also  evident  that  very  few  schools  pursue 
biological  study  any  further ;  and  in  the  majority 
of  those  that  do  so  the  subject  is  confessedly 
confined  to  those  pupils  who  are  hoping  to  enter 
the  medical  profession.  The  sub-committee 
appointed  by  the  British  Association,  in  their 
report  presented  at  Dublin,  express  regret  that 
biology  is  not  more  widely  taught  in  the  upper 
forms  of  schools.  There  is  thus  no  doubt  that 
the  merits  of  zoology  and  botany  as  subjects  of 
general  education  are  not  generally  recognised ; 
such  higher  work  as  is  done  in  schools  is  usually 
but  the  preliminary  course  of  the  future  doctor, 

37 


38       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

and  is  therefore  "technical  training"  applied  to  a 
few  only. 

If  we  search  for  the  causes  of  this  apparent 
aversion  from,  or  at  any  rate  avoidance  of  biology, 
dearth  of  teachers  seems  to  be  the  chief.  The 
number  of  men  who  take  the  Final  Honour 
School  of  Zoology  or  of  Botany  at  Oxford  is 
very  small,  and  probably  because  these  subjects 
do  not  appear  to  offer  any  livelihood.  The 
School  of  Forestry,  no  doubt,  will  lead  to  an 
increase  in  the  botanical  students  at  Oxford,  but 
these  men  are  already  '*  ear-marked,"  and  of  no 
account  in  the  present  question.  Similarly  at 
Cambridge,  where  at  least  three  subjects  are 
demanded  for  Part  I  of  the  Natural  Science 
Tripos,  although  considerable  numbers  offer  zoo- 
logy and  botany,  the  majority  do  so  for  purposes 
of  medicine.  But  if  schools  were  to  widen  the 
ground  of  their  science  teaching  and  adopt 
biology  as  a  regular  general  subject,  there  would 
be  an  inducement  to  men  who  are  interested  in 
the  study  of  animals  and  plants  to  take  up  zoo- 
logy and  botany  for  their  degrees  with  the  direct 
intention  of  teaching  and  thereby  gaining  their 
living.  At  present  we  seem  to  be  moving,  or 
more  accurately,  standing  still,  in  a  vicious  circle 
— biology  is  not  taught  because  there  are  no 
teachers ;  there  are  no  teachers  because  biology 
is  not  taught. 

With    the    rival    sciences    of    chemistry    and 


I 


BIOLOGY   IN   SCHOOLS  39 

physics  it  is  far  different.  The  £  s.  d.  value  of 
these  subjects  is  evident,  and  the  openings  of 
careers  plentiful ;  there  is  no  dearth  of  excellent 
and  devoted  teachers.  Lest  there  be  any  mis- 
understanding, it  will  be  prudent  at  once  to  admit 
that  for  training  in  experiment,  in  methods  of 
precision,  and  in  exact  reasoning  physics  and 
chemistry  undoubtedly  have  the  advantage  over 
biology,  but  they  do  not  equal  biology  in  quicken- 
ing the  powers  of  observation,  and  it  is,  at  any 
rate,  open  to  question  whether  they  are  as  truly 
suitable  iox  general  education.  A  great  portion 
of  the  strength  of  their  present  position  in  educa- 
tion is  derived  from  the  appreciation  of  their 
utilitarian  value  by  the  British  Public.  The 
market  price  of  the  study  of  insects  and  snails,  of 
fishes  and  crustaceans,  of  trees  and  fungi,  is  not 
yet  appreciated,  but  may  possibly  be  realised  to 
some  extent  by  the  mention  of  the  tsetse  fly  and 
Anopheles  gnat  (both  of  imperial  importance), 
the  ravages  of  the  liver-fluke  among  sheep  after 
it  has  left  its  intermediate  (snail)  host,  the  work 
of  the  Marine  Bioloorical  Association  in  husband- 

o 

ing  the  harvest  of  the  seas,  the  improvement  of 
cereals  and  other  food  plants,  thanks  to  the 
researches  of  biologists  into  the  laws  of  heredity, 
the  life-history  of  wheat-rust  and  other  harmful 
fungi — to  name  only  a  few  of  the  peculiarly 
valuable  discoveries  by  which  almost  every  one  of 
us  is  directly  or  indirectly  benefited. 


40      BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

It  is  difficult  to  understand  the  reluctance  to 
teach  biology  in  face  of  the  fact  that  this  science 
is  concerned  with  phenomena  and  problems  which 
meet  us  everywhere  in  our  daily  life  both  in  the 
world  around  us  and  within  our  own  persons. 
Moreover,  it  offers  exceptional  opportunities  for 
the  stimulation  of  the  power  of  independent 
inquiry  and  direct  observation  on  the  part  of  the 
children  themselves ;  and  that  on  occasions  other 
than  those  of  attendance  in  the  classroom  or 
laboratory,  viz.  in  the  play-hours  and  during 
walks  in  the  country  or  the  town,  and  abundantly 
during  holidays.  To  many  it  may  well  become 
an  intellectual  hobby,  something  on  which  the 
mind  will  exert  itself  for  the  mere  love  of  it.  Is 
any  further  justification  of  the  place  of  biology  in 
education  necessary  ? 

Turning  now  to  the  actual  practice  of  teaching, 
it  is  natural  to  enquire  at  what  age  biology  may 
be  introduced.  Every  one  who  has  had  to  do 
with  quite  young  children,  especially  those  who 
are  fortunate  enough  to  have  their  homes  in  the 
country,  must  have  noticed  how  great  are  the 
attractions  of  living  animals  and  plants  even  to 
mere  infants — their  pets  and  their  gardens  have 
an  absorbing  interest  and  are  tended  with  a  care 
and  keenness  that  is  truly  refreshing.  We  need 
then  have  no  hesitation  in  making  a  beginning 
very  early,  indeed  almost  before  the  days  of 
regular  schooling  are  reached.     It  will  be  a  step 


% 


BIOLOGY   IN   SCHOOLS  41 

forward  to  get  the  children  to  notice  their  plants 
and  animals  a  little  more  carefully  ;  to  write  short 
descriptions  of  them  and  perhaps  compare  them 
with  one  another,  and  thus  gain  some  conception 
of  the  external  form  and  structure  of  living  things. 
A  very  useful  and  instructive  bit  of  work  would 
be  found  in  the  descriptions  and  comparisons  one 
with  another  of,  say,  a  rabbit,  a  canary,  a  tortoise, 
a  toad,  and  a  goldfish;  or  again,  tulips,  geraniums, 
wallflowers,  mustard  and  cress,  or  whatever  plants 
were  receiving  attention  in  the  small  garden, 
might  be  used  in  a  similar  manner.  It  is  cer- 
tainly important  to  press  home  at  an  early  stage 
the  idea  that  plants  are  living  things,  and  that 
all  living  things  which  are  not  plants  are  animals. 
It  is  curious  how  often  one  has  to  eradicate  the 
idea  that  birds,  fishes,  insects,  etc.  etc.,  are  not 
animals ;  there  is  a  widespread  misconception 
which  would  define  ** animal"  as  equivalent  to 
"  mammal,"  and  which  even  then  indignantly 
repudiates  the  suggestion  that  Man  is  an  animal. 
There  is  a  great  gain  in  sympathy  if  it  be  realised 
that  our  life  is  very  much  the  same  in  essence  as 
that  of  other  living  things,  and  that  we  and 
they  are  all  knit  together  in  one  great  and 
mysterious  bond,  the  riddle  of  whose  forging  has 
tasked  and  is  tasking  some  of  the  keenest  in- 
tellects, and  is  yet  unsolved. 

Occasionally  one  comes  across  a  child  to  whom 
such  descriptive  and  comparative  work  as  that 


42       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

just  suggested  is  easy  and  spontaneous ;  more 
commonly  guidance  is  necessary  in  order  to  pre- 
vent discursive  muddle  and  to  initiate  orderly 
method.  Such  guidance  is  best  given  by  a  series 
of  questions  ;  for  example — *'  How  many  limbs 
has  each  of  these  animals  ?  How  do  the  limbs 
of  the  rabbit  differ  from  those  of  the  canary  and 
of  the  goldfish  ?  What  sort  of  covering  has 
each  of  these  animals?"  and  so  on.  A  risk  in- 
volved in  this  method  is  that  of  receiving  in 
writing  answers  which  are  permissible  viva  voce. 
A  complete  sentence  should  always  be  insisted 
on  ;  the  habit  thus  formed  is  invaluable.  For 
instance,  to  the  first  of  the  above  questions  the 
answer  "  Four,"  should  be  refused,  and  the  com- 
plete sentence,  "  The  rabbit,  the  canary,  the  tor- 
toise, the  toad,  and  the  goldfish  each  have  four 
limbs,"  should  be  required.  A  little  later,  and  with 
some  practice,  we  may  ask  for  consecutive  and 
connected  sentences  descriptive  of  the  objects  in 
hand,  and  then  the  value  of  the  insistence  on 
well-composed  sentences  is  quickly  appreciated. 
At  an  almost  equally  early  age  attention  may  be 
directed  to  ''phenological "  phenomena.  The 
arrival  of  swallow,  martin,  cuckoo,  and  other 
common  spring  migrants,  the  opening  of  leaves 
and  flowers,  the  first  flights  of  bees  and  wasps 
are  eagerly  looked  for,  and  the  notice  of  these 
conspicuous  appearances,  in  addition  to  adding 
greatly  to  the  delight  and  interest  in  living  nature. 


BIOLOGY   IN   SCHOOLS  43 

lays  the  foundation  for  life  of  the  seeing  eye  and 
hearing  ear. 

With  pupils  of  public-school  age  we  may  pro- 
ceed to  more  serious  work  and  pass  on  to 
enquiries  into  the  life,  habits,  and  functions  of 
animals  and  plants.  How  does  each  one  get  its 
food  ?  Of  what  does  its  food  consist  ?  How 
does  it  breathe,  how  move  (if  animal)  ?  In  what 
sort  of  place  and  surroundings  does  it  prefer  to 
live  ?  What  kind  of  home  or  nest  does  it  (the 
animal)  construct  ?  How  does  it  find  a  mate  ? 
In  what  condition  are  the  young  produced  ?  Do 
they  receive  parental  attention  after  birth,  and 
for  how  long  ?  Are  the  adult  animals  solitary  or 
gregarious  or  even  social,  and,  if  the  last,  what 
duties  are  performed  pro  bono  publico  within  the 
society  to  which  they  belong  ?  A  host  of  other 
questions  will  readily  occur  to  any  teacher, 
appropriate,  mutatis  mutandis,  to  zoological  or 
to  botanical  research  of  this  kind.  Too  much 
stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  maxim  of  not 
telling  anything  that  the  pupil  ought  to  be  able 
to  make  out  for  him-  or  herself;  nor  should  the 
necessity  of  insisting  on  drawing  freehand  illus- 
trations from  the  object  under  observation  be 
overlooked.  Every  one  can  learn  to  draw  suffi- 
ciently well  to  find  the  accomplishment  useful, 
though,  of  course,  artists  cannot  be  made  any 
more  than  poets. 

In  selecting  material  for  work  of  this  kind  the 


44      BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

teacher  will  be  guided  more  or  less  by  the  locality 
of  his  school  ;  but  in  any  case  it  is  the  common 
everyday  animal  and  plant  that  should  receive 
the  closest  study.  Worms,  snails,  oysters,  or 
mussels,  insects  of  many  kinds,  fish,  frogs,  and 
toads  are  not  difficult  to  procure  nor  to  study 
alive  at  any  inland  school ;  while  at  the  seaside 
the  fauna  of  shore-pools  and  fishermen's  nets 
will  afford  more  than  enough  for  a  year's  course. 
Similarly  in  the  plant  kingdom,  mosses,  fungi, 
lichens,  and  moulds  are  of  universal  occurrence, 
and  can  be  studied  profitably  without  having 
recourse  to  the  compound  microscope ;  nor 
should  there  be  any  obstacle  to  prevent  the 
dissection  of  flowers,  the  study  of  leaf-form,  of 
stems  and  their  modifications,  and  of  the  general 
characters  of  plants  adapted  to  special  circum- 
stances. If  a  school-garden  exists,  small  plots 
can  at  comparatively  little  cost,  especially  if  the 
pupils  are  (as  they  should  be)  the  actual  tillers  of 
the  soil,  be  laid  out  as  (i)  a  pond,  (2)  a  marsh, 
(3)  a  salt-swamp,  (4)  a  dry  sandy  heath  ;  and 
here  may  be  studied  the  peculiarities  of  hydro- 
phytes, halophytes,  xerophytes,  and  the  rest,  but 
not  under  these  titles  except  in  the  mind  of  the 
teacher.  A  really  valuable  and  much-needed  bit 
of  work  consists  in  the  study  of  the  germination 
and  early  stages  of  common  weeds.  We  are 
not  aware  of  any  book  in  which  the  facts  relating 
to   these   are  given.     Sets   of  pupils  might   be 


BIOLOGY   IN   SCHOOLS  45 

assigned  to  look  after  about  half  a  dozen  species 
each,  to  keep  records  of  their  behaviour  and 
make  sketches  and  photographs  at  frequent  in- 
tervals. Each  task  may  be  considered  complete 
when  seed  has  been  obtained  from  the  plant 
which  developed  from  the  seed  sown. 

Research  of  much  the  same  character  is  pos- 
sible among  animals.  The  life-histories  of  a 
large  number  of  our  commonest  insects  are  but 
imperfectly  known,  and  probably  any  one  of 
them  if  carefully  observed  would  yield  facts  new 
to  science.  Or,  again,  the  immature  stages  and 
plumage  of  many  common  birds  have  as  yet 
received  very  inadequate  treatment.  But  whether 
the  knowledge  obtained  is  nev/  to  science  or  not 
matters  very  little  ;  it  is  new  to  the  pupil,  and  it 
has  been  gained  by  his  own  efforts  and  observa- 
tion. He  has  learnt  that  he  can  learn,  and 
probably  that  he  likes  and  wishes  to  learn. 

At  about  this  period  it  is  well  to  devote  some 
time  to  function — to  introduce  a  course  of  ele- 
mentary physiology,  making  it  as  experimental 
as  possible.  Human  physiology  is  undoubtedly 
the  best ;  children  have  learnt  incidentally  that 
they  have  muscles  and  use  them  to  produce 
movement ;  they  know  that  they  breathe,  and 
that  under  certain  circumstances  they  breathe 
more  rapidly,  and  that  certain  appearances  result 
if  they  "  hold  their  breath,"  or  if  they  constrict 
a  finger  with  a  bit  of  string  so  as  to  impede  the 


46       BROAD   LINES    IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

free  circulation  of  blood ;  they  are  aware  that 
they  need  fresh  air,  and  get  headaches  if  com- 
pelled to  sit  in  stuffy  rooms  ;  they  realise  the 
importance  of  food,  but  do  not  always  feed 
wisely,  nor  allow  their  digestive  organs  the  rest 
that  health  demands.  They  are  thus  ready  for 
a  general  knowledge  of  the  structure  and  working 
of  the  human  body  and  its  several  organs,  and 
en  route,  may  receive  the  very  necessary  informa- 
tion on  personal  hygiene  that  should  be  possessed 
by  everyone.  This  course  will  here  and  there, 
e.g.  in  dealing  with  the  blood,  involve  the  men- 
tion of  cell-structure,  and  will  open  the  door  to 
the  more  systematic  study  of  zoology  and  botany, 
which  can  be  undertaken  at  the  age  of  about 
sixteen  or  seventeen  years. 

By  this  time,  either  in  the  physiological  course 
just  suggested,  or  in  the  other  laboratories,  some 
knowledge  of  chemistry  and  of  physics  will 
have  been  acquired ;  and  the  systematic  biology 
may  advantageously  be  run  on  frankly  evolu- 
tionary lines.  The  compound  microscope  is  now 
a  necessity  ;  hitherto  the  simple  lens  will  have 
sufficed.  Opinions  differ  as  to  the  advisability 
of  beginning  with  the  unicellular  organisms. 
Huxley  was  in  favour  of  using  the  frog  as  an 
introductory  type,  and  others  whose  position  and 
experience  render  their  decision  weighty  advo- 
cate the  same  course  to-day.  I  venture,  how- 
ever, to  think  that  after  a  short  course  in  the 


BIOLOGY    IN   SCHOOLS  47 

essentials  of  human  physiology  pupils  are  in 
a  position  to  appreciate  the  generalised  structure 
and  absence  of  division  of  labour  in  the  lowest 
forms  of  life,  and  can  readily  grasp  the  import- 
ance of  the  higher  forms  as  they  proceed  step 
by  step  along  the  course  of  life  as  indicated  by 
existing  creatures.  The  kind  of  plan  which  is 
in  view  is  that  admirably  exampled  in  Jeffrey 
Parker's  Eleme7itary  Biology,  to  mention  but  one 
of  several  good  books  suitable  to  this  stage.  In 
this,  the  last,  portion  of  a  school  course,  clear 
ideas  must  be  gained  of  the  chief  types  of 
animal  and  vegetable  architecture,  principles 
of  classification  should  become  familiar,  and 
some  idea  of  the  meaning  of  the  words  ''genus" 
and  "  species  "  obtained.  Excellent  studies  in 
specific  differences  can  be  found  in  the  social 
wasps  among  animals  and  in  the  wild  poppies 
among  plants.  Lectures  and  reading  assume 
importance  at  this  period,  for  such  subjects  as 
embryology,  geographical  and  geological  distribu- 
tion, heredity  and  variation,  and  other  problems 
in  biological  philosophy  are  not  now  beyond  the 
reach  of  intelligent  pupils.  Chapters  in  the 
Origm  of  Species,  and  perhaps  the  whole  of 
Wallace's  Darwinis7?t  and  of  Punnett's  Mendelism 
ought  to  be  read  and  discussed. 

Space  does  not  permit  full  treatment  of  the 
part  to  be  played  by  the  school  museum  in 
the  teaching  of  biology.     The  collection  should 


48       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

contain  well-displayed  and  fully-described  speci- 
mens of  the  chief  forms  of  animal  and  vegetable 
life,  especial  prominence  being  given  to  those 
which  are  of  common  occurrence  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. No  doubt  it  will  be  found  necessary 
to  purchase  some  specimens,  but  the  educational 
value  of  the  collections  and  the  general  interest 
in  them  will  be  greatly  enhanced  if  the  majority 
of  the  preparations  are  set  up  by  the  pupils 
themselves.  It  should  be  an  honour  to  do  a 
piece  of  work  sufficiently  good  to  merit  preserva- 
tion. The  museum,  properly  handled,  should  be 
a  means  of  preventing  the  production  of  mere 
laboratory  biologists — a  product  that  is  too  fre- 
quent. An  examiner  for  a  biological  scholarship 
recently  set  as  a  question  in  the  ''practical" 
paper  a  number  of  specimens  gathered  partly 
during  a  walk  along  the  seashore  and  partly 
during  a  stroll  round  his  garden ;  the  specimens 
were  all  of  common  occurrence,  but  proved 
themselves  the  hardest  part  of  the  whole  exami- 
nation to  all  the  candidates.  Biology  cannot  be 
considered  as  satisfactorily  taught  if  it  fails  to 
excite  an  interest  in  the  life  that  meets  our  eyes 
in  our  daily  walks. 


V 

THE   TEACHING  OF   HYGIENE 

By  ALICE  RAVENHILL 

A  DEFINITION  of  education  which  com- 
/  %  mends  itself  for  the  purpose  of  this 
/  ^  paper  describes  it  as  "the  process 
which  aims  at  the  adjustment  of  the 
growing  organism  to  his  environment,"  incidental 
instruction  being  directed  to  the  child's  equipment 
with  the  knowledge  necessary  to  give  him  con- 
trol over  conditions  by  understanding  them.  For 
this  purpose  the  record  of  human  experience  is 
presented  to  the  pupil  in  the  form  of  history  and 
geography ;  lessons  in  language  and  literature 
illustrate  the  growth  and  development  of  mind 
and  manners ;  while,  by  the  aid  of  elementary 
science  teaching,  the  law  of  cause  and  effect  in 
the  realm  of  nature  is  practically  demonstrated 
to  his  inexperience.  But,  as  the  result  probably 
of  the  prolonged  and  artificial  isolation  of  man 
from  his  biological  connections  and  of  the  con- 
tempt of  the  body  associated  with  certain  phases 
of  religious  and  ethical  teaching,  the  obligation 
to  acquire  knowledge  and  to  train  powers,  with 
E  49 


so      BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

the  direct  object,  not  of  intellectual  but  of  physi- 
cal culture,  has  but  recently  suggested  itself  to 
the  world  of  educators.  Charlemagne,  however, 
seems  to  have  been  alive  to  the  fact,  for,  in  his 
edict  on  the  establishment  of  schools,  he  writes 
that  "Though  right  doing  is  preferable  to  right 
thinking,  yet  must  a  knowledge  of  what  is 
RIGHT  PRECEDE  RIGHT  ACTION."  But  public  Opinion 
was  not  ripe  for  the  recognition  of  this  truth,  or, 
at  any  rate,  for  its  application  to  the  care  of  the 
body,  so  that,  after  a  lapse  of  eleven  hundred 
years,  it  is  still  necessary  to  point  out  that  em- 
piricism and  ignorance  must  be  banished  from 
this  as  from  other  spheres  of  human  activity,  and 
the  youth  of  the  country  trained  to  the  realisa- 
tion that  in  hygiene  is  found  the  sum  of  scientific 
knowledge  directly  serviceable  for  the  right  con- 
duct and  beautifying  of  human  life. 

That  the  Board  of  Education  is  in  sympathy 
with  the  importance  of  cultivating  a  sense  of 
personal  responsibility  for  the  lives  we  have  and 
the  health  we  might  have  is  suggested  by  several 
passages  in  the  Regulations  for  both  Elementary 
and  Secondary  Schools,  which  set  out  the  desira- 
bility of  forging  links  between  lessons  and  life,  by 
training  in  accurate  use  of  thought,  in  practical 
ability  to  deal  with  the  affairs  of  life,  and  by 
exercise,  physical  as  well  as  mental.  Certain 
difficulties  arise,  however,  when  considering:  (i) 
the   position  of  the  subject  in  the   school  pro- 


THE    TEACHING   OF   HYGIENE  51 

gramme ;  (2)  the  methods  by  which  it  should  be 
presented  to  pupils  of  different  ages ;  (3)  the 
preparation  of  the  teacher  for  this  work. 

I.     THE    POSITION    OF    HYGIENE    IN    THE 
SCHOOL    PROGRAMME. 

This  will  entirely  depend  upon  whether  the 
Direct  or  Indirect  Method  of  Instruction  is 
adopted.  At  the  present  moment  a  majority  of 
teachers  favour  reliance  upon  the  general  atmo- 
sphere of  hygienic  observances,  which  surrounds 
the  pupils  in  most  schools,  as  the  best  means  of 
training  in  good  habits  and  in  the  assimila- 
tion of  sanitary  precepts ;  but  this  method  has 
the  grave  objection  that  any  theoretical  basis  for 
action  is  usually  incomplete,  disjointed,  restricted 
in  scope,  and  often  quite  perfunctory.  Conse- 
quently, though  good  personal  habits  are  formed, 
the  power  of  facile  individual  adaptation  to  un- 
familiar conditions  is  wanting  or  weak'. 

Exception  to  the  Direct  Method  of  Instruc- 
tion is  usually  taken  on  three  counts  :  (i)  that  it 
often  fails  to  interest  healthy-minded  boys  and 
girls  and  may  develop  morbidity  in  the  debilitated 
or  introspective ;  (2)  that  demands  on  time  forbid 
the  introduction  of  any  new  subject ;  (3)  that 
hygiene  is  deficient  in  educational  value  and  use- 
less for  examination  purposes. 

The  first  objection  is  based  largely  upon  what 
appears   to    me    to    be   a   misconception    of   the 


52       BROAD   LINES   IN    SCIENCE  TEACHING 

methods  with  which  it  should  be  associated ;  for 
instance,  so  much  stress  has  been  hitherto  laid  on 
the  negative  rather  than  on  the  positive  in  human 
health,  upon  the  abnormal  rather  than  upon  the 
normal  in  human  life.  I  think  too  that  psycho- 
logically the  child  from  ten  to  fourteen  or  fifteen 
is  not  ripe  for  a  detailed  study  of  the  principles  of 
hygiene,  and  consider  direct  instruction  can  be 
advantageously  reserved  till  the  last  few  months  of 
school  life.  Where  the  pupil  passes  on  to  college, 
further  postponement  is  permissible.  With  the 
second  objection  I  am  in  full  sympathy.  In  re- 
spect of  the  third,  the  great  value  of  hygiene  as 
a  lens  by  which  to  focus  learning  on  life  has  yet 
to  be  generally  realised.  Personally,  I  would  like 
to  see  Hygiene  an  optional  subject  in  School 
Leaving,  Higher  Local,  Matriculation,  and 
equivalent   examinations. 

Reflections  on  the  reason  why  a  study  of  right 
living  fails  to  interest  lead  on  to  a  study  of  the 
methods  by  which  it  should  be  presented  to  pupils. 
Hitherto,  the  subject  has  been  too  often  actually 
introduced  by  a  study  of  *'  dry  bones  "  ;  has  been 
restricted  to  its  personal  and  domestic  aspects,  in 
which  the  boy  and  girl  have  little  interest ;  and 
has  been  devitalised  by  isolation  from  its  relation 
to  almost  every  event  in  life  and  to  every  subject 
in  the  curriculum.  It  has  been  conventional  to 
teach  hygiene  as  a  compendium  of  scientific 
theories  or  of  statistical   facts,   instead   of  con- 


THE    TEACHING   OF   HYGIENE  53 

centrating  attention  on  the  significance  of  the 
doings  of  daily  Hfe — so  familiar  as  to  be  usually 
unconsidered — and  by  tracing  these  back  to  their 
hygienic  origins  or  onwards  to  their  protective 
results  on  the  public,  utilising  them  to  cultivate  a 
scientific  habit  of  mind  and  a  sense  of  civic  duty. 

The  provision  for  the  preparation  of  teachers 
for  this  branch  of  their  work  too  has  been  so  im- 
perfect, that  they  have  been  placed  at  a  serious  dis- 
advantage when  called  upon  to  handle  it  in  schools. 

The  words  of  an  old  writer  on  the  education 
of  youth  aptly  embody  the  guiding  principle  to 
be  pursued  by  the  teacher  who  desires  to  make 
hygiene  at  once  attractive  and  productive.  **  That 
which  is  to  become  a  power  in  the  pupils,"  he 
writes,  ''and  to  be  closely  welded  to  his  most 
cherished  thoughts  and  feelings  must  not  pass 
hurriedly  and  unconnectedly  before  his  soul  like 
the  images  of  the  kaleidoscope  ;  it  must  occupy 
him  long  and  uninterruptedly."  I nstruction  should 
therefore  be  continuous  ;  progressively  adapted  to 
phases  of  growth  and  interest ;  observational  and 
concrete  in  method  ;  varied  and  elastic  in  applica- 
tion ;  correlated  with  the  humanities,  with  science 
and  with  art ;  preferably  intensive  for  a  short 
period  on  the  threshold  of  emancipation  from 
tutors  and  governors,  to  prepare  the  youth  for 
the  responsibilities  of  manhood  and  citizenship, 
the  maiden  for  womanhood  and  the  wise  direction 
or  performance  of  domestic  duties. 


54      BROAD   LINES   IN  SCIENCE  TEACHING 
II.    METHODS    OF    TEACHING    HYGIENE. 

It  will  be  assumed  in  the  following  suggestions 
that  advantage  has  been  taken  of  the  little  child's 
imitative,  dramatic,  and  constructive  instincts  to 
lay  a  firm  foundation  of  good  habits.  The  love 
of  doing  and  of  repetition,  the  impulses  to  activity 
and  investigation,  facilitate  the  organisation  of 
bands  of  little  doers  in  nursery,  infant  school, 
and  kindergarten,  whose  training  in  personal 
niceties  and  in  social  consideration  will  form  life- 
long hygienic  habits.  It  will  be  further  assumed 
that  in  preparatory  and  elementary  schools  the 
child's  quick  observation  and  keen  curiosity  have 
been  utilised,  as  has  been  so  admirably  suggested 
by  Miss  Hoskyns  Abrahall  :^  (i)  to  observe  facts 
in  nature ;  (2)  to  draw  conclusions  from  these 
facts ;  (3)  to  apply  these  facts  to  daily  life.  She 
has  pointed  out,  for  instance,  on  more  than  one 
occasion,  the  mass  of  hygienic  inferences  which 
may  be  associated  with  the  careful  observation 
of  a  green,  flowering  plant ;  its  general  character- 
istics and  requirements ;  its  dependence  on  air,  sun- 
light, and  food ;  the  influence  of  its  environment 
(cold,  heat,  drought,  damp,  darkness,  soil,  etc.)  ; 
the  results  of  overcrowding ;  the  presence  of  para- 
sites.    By  this  means  intelligent  interest  is  de- 

*  "The  Correlation  of  Hygiene  with  other  subjects  in  the 
School  Curriculum."  Transactions  Royal  Sanitary  Institute^ 
Vol.  XXV,  1905. 


THE    TEACHING   OF   HYGIENE  55 

veloped  in  the  various  devices  of  living  organisms 
for  the  maintenance  of  Hfe  ;  the  process  of  circula- 
tion, for  example,  or  respiration,  of  assimilation, 
excretion,  growth,  and  reproduction,  the  machinery 
for  which  becomes  more  highly  differentiated  as 
animals  ascend  the  ladder  of  life,  until  man  is 
reached  on  the  topmost  rung.  To  describe  this 
method  of  inculcating  the  elements  of  hygiene 
as  **  biological "  savours,  perhaps,  of  the  high- 
flown  and  the  superficial  ;  nevertheless,  with 
certain  reservations,  it  is  accurate. 

Thus  prepared,  the  boy  or  girl  is  ready  to  pass 
on  to  that  method  of  teaching  hygiene,  the  Corre- 
laiional,  which  seems  more  appropriate  in  the 
secondary  school ;  for,  while  making  no  increased 
demands  on  precious  time,  it  nevertheless  vivifies 
and  illuminates  every  subject  in  the  curriculum, 
cultivates  the  dawning  powers  of  reason,  develops 
ability  to  apply  information,  and  trains  at  one  and 
the  same  moment  in  appreciation  that  problems 
exist  and  of  the  means  adopted  for  their  solution. 
In  geography  and  history,  for  instance,  the  effects 
on  human  development  of  climate,  of  soil,  of 
food-stuffs,  of  water  supply  or  of  indigenous 
diseases  may  be  traced.  The  influences  of  local 
conditions  on  industries,  nutrition,  customs,  civil- 
isation, social  progress  and  position  among  the 
races  of  mankind  will  emphasise  the  fact  that 
civilisation  and  sanitary  science  are  most  in- 
timately related  ;  that,  according  to  the  character 


56      BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

of  the  artificial  climate  with  which  man  surrounds 
himself  In  clothing  and  home,  according  to  the 
attention  he  gives  to  the  disposal  of  refuse  or  to 
the  due  supply  of  wholesome  food,  according  to 
his  restrained  and  Intelligent  utilisation  of  his 
instincts — personal  and  racial — will  be  regulated 
not  merely  his  own  personal  efficiency  and  civic 
worth,  but  the  position  of  his  people  among  the 
great  powers  of  the  world. 

In  the  science  laboratory  the  perception  of  the 
fact  that  all  energy  dispensed  is  the  result  of 
chemical  reactions  can  be  so  turned  to  account  as 
to  open  young  students'  eyes  to  recognise  what 
Professor  Sherrington  has  pointed  out,  that  **  the 
body's  material  commerce  with  the  world  is 
chemical "  ;  a  new  light  will  thus  be  thrown  upon 
the  chemistry  of  respiration,  of  metabolism,  of 
fatigue,  and  of  other  functional  processes.  In 
the  course  of  a  study  of  elementary  physics,  illus- 
trations may  be  drawn  from  the  heart  as  a  force 
pump ;  from  the  eye  as  an  optical  Instrument ; 
from  the  structure  of  the  ear  as  an  Instrument  for 
the  process  of  sound  transmission.  The  employ- 
ment of  the  thermometer  and  barometer  for  man's 
guidance  and  well-being ;  the  application  of  the 
principles  of  the  siphon  to  domestic  and  municipal 
purposes ;  the  analogy  between  the  liberation  of 
nervous  energy  and  an  electric  discharge,  for 
instance,  may  all  be  turned  to  profitable  and 
practical  account  in  this  correlational  method  of 


THE    TEACHING   OF   HYGIENE  57 

teaching  hygiene.  Again,  an  insight  into  the 
mechanics  of  the  body  in  relation  to  posture  often 
awakens  a  genuine  interest  in  physical  culture, 
and  the  routine  occupations  of  daily  life  assume 
new  and  more  interesting  aspects  when  articles 
such  as  milk,  soap,  lemon-juice,  or  washing-soda 
are  used  to  illustrate  the  characteristics  of  emul- 
sions, acids,  alkalies,  etc.,  in  the  chemical  labora- 
tory, or  the  organic  nature  of  much  domestic 
dust  is  demonstrated  by  bacteriological  methods. 
Much  incidental  instruction  in  hygiene  is  given  to 
girls  in  some  of  the  admirable  courses  in  the 
Domestic  Arts  closely  correlated  with  the  science 
work,  carried  on  in  a  growing  number  of  secon- 
dary schools  ;  but  as  yet  they  concentrate  some- 
what too  closely  on  the  purely  personal  and 
domestic  aspects  of  the  mother  subject.  Advan- 
tage is  also  generally  taken  of  the  physical- 
training  classes  in  girls'  schools  to  associate  the 
exercises  with  some  of  the  reasons  which  render 
them  desirable,  and  to  direct  attention  to  the 
effects  by  which  exercises  are  attended — bodily 
warmth,  for  instance,  hunger,  thirst,  or  fatigue ; 
the  importance  of  adequate  ventilation  and  of 
suitable  dress  being  kept  carefully  in  view. 
In  a  few  boys'  schools  I  believe  that  similar 
lines  have  been  adopted,  but  they  could  well 
be  extended. 

The    recent    movement    in    favour    of    more 
organised  training  in  social  as  well  as  individual 


58       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

morality  prepares  the  ground  also  not  only  for  an 
introduction  to  civic  duties  in  respect  of  sanita- 
tion, but  for  some  preliminary  initiation  into  the 
economics  of  health,  as  reflected  in  the  utilisation 
of  time,  energy,  strength,  and  money,  with  a 
due  regard  to  personal  efficiency  and  racial 
responsibility.  The  application  of  art  to  sani- 
tary science  can  also  be  suggested,  and  in 
some  cases  considerably  elaborated ;  though 
any  tendency  to  supersede  the  educational 
by  the  technical  needs  careful  supervision  and 
maybe  repression. 

A  second  method  of  teaching  hygiene  in 
secondary  schools  can  be  most  fitly  described  as 
Super  structural,  because,  as  has  been  already 
suggested,  it  is  most  profitably  adopted  during 
the  last  months  at  school,  when  it  should  be 
presented  as  one  channel  of  most  practical  applica- 
tion to  human  needs  of  human  knowledge,  and 
should  have  devoted  to  it  at  least  two  and  pre- 
ferably four  hours  a  week.  As  a  necessary 
preliminary  to  what  should  consist  of  a  short 
study  of  human  life  and  its  requirements,  some 
general  outline  must  be  given  of  man  s  place  in 
nature,  accompanied  by  a  brief  r6sum6  of  the 
biological  laws  which  reign  in  the  world  of  life. 
Much  of  this  will  be  already  familiar  to  pupils 
whose  early  study  of  nature  has  been  pursued  in  the 
form  of  elementary  botany  or  zoology ;  but  at 
this  point  more  stress  than  hitherto  will  be  laid 


i 


THE    TEACHING   OF   HYGIENE  59 

on  the  relative  importance  to  mankind  of  inherit- 
ance or  environment,  of  nutrition  or  stimulus ; 
while  the  meaning  of  diathesis  and  the  worth  of 
adaptability  and  of  power  to  control  conditions 
must  be  explained.  The  interconnection  of 
growth,  nutrition,  and  stimulus ;  the  time  law  in 
living  matter,  which  makes  of  such  importance 
the  right  regulation  of  physiological  rhythms  and 
their  cultivation  as  habits ;  the  maintenance  of  in- 
dividual immunity  to  disease — chronic  and  acute; 
the  ethical,  industrial,  and  social  aspects  of 
hygiene,  all  call  for  review  and  emphasis,  in 
proportion  to  the  development,  special  needs,  and 
probable  future  positions  of  the  young  people 
immediately  concerned. 

When  human  life  is  thus  studied  in  relation  to 
organic  and  inorganic  nature,  it  will  be  observed 
that  its  activities  resolve  themselves  into  two 
large  groups — one  of  which  is  concerned  with 
care  for  self  (food,  shelter,  environment),  the 
other  with  care  for  others  (the  young,  the  help- 
less, neighbours,  relatives,  and  fellow-countrymen), 
thus  covering  the  whole  sphere  of  human  exist- 
ence. The  introductory  matter  of  this  course 
might  well  be  identical  for  boys  and  girls,  for  the 
outlines  of  human  physiology  and  of  personal 
hygiene  should  be  common  knowledge ;  but  as 
the  course  proceeds,  divergence  becomes  obliga- 
tory, in  view  of  the  varied  duties  and  functions 
of  man  and  woman.     The  lines  of  this  diver- 


6o       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

gence  can  be  most  concisely  illustrated  in  tabular 
form  thus  : — 


GIRLS. 


BOYS. 


FOOD. 


Retail  cost. 

Domestic  care  and  storage. 

Preparation,     cooking,     and 

serving. 
Dietaries  for  various  ages. 


Cost  and  method — 

of  production. 

of  distribution. 

of  preservation  and  storage. 
Legal  protection. 


DOMESTIC   HYGIENE. 


Details  of  choice  and  care  of 
houses  and  institutions. 

Cleansing  methods. 

Furniture.     Decoration. 

Household  economics  (finan- 
cial and  hygienic). 


House  planning,  construction, 

and  repairs. 
Water  supply. 

Methods  of  refuse  removal. 
Lighting,  warming,  etc. 


ECONOMICS   OF    HEALTH. 


Care  and  education  of  infants 
and  children. 

Occupations.  Domestic  ser- 
vice. 

Maintenance  of  personal  effi- 
ciency. 

Racial  responsibility. 


I 

Civic  dutiesl^^^'^'y- 

'^  Educational,etc. 

Industrial  occupations. 
Maintenance  of  personal  effi- 
ciency. 
Racial  responsibility. 


THE    TEACHING   OF   HYGIENE  6i 

Neither  the  suggestions  for  this  short  course 
of  intensive  study  of  hygiene  nor  those  given  at 
an  earlier  point  in  this  chapter  assume  to  be  more 
than  general  indications  of  methods  shown  by 
experience  to  be  reliable  and  feasible.  Within 
the  assigned  limits  of  space  it  is  only  possible  to 
indicate  in  very  general  terms  the  means  by 
which  this  indispensable  instruction  can  be  utilised 
to  quicken  the  sanitary  conscience  in  the  adoles- 
cent ;  to  broaden  the  intellectual  horizon ;  to 
raise  and  strengthen  ethical  ideals ;  to  awaken  a 
sense  of  social  responsibility ;  to  become,  indeed, 
for  boys  and  girls  alike,  a  great  humanistic  study. 

But  at  no  time  in  the  history  of  our  country 
has  it  been  of  greater  moment  to  open  the  eyes 
of  our  young  people  to  the  fact  that  each  genera- 
tion "owes  it  to  itself  and  to  its  posterity  to 
protect  life,  to  enrich  it,  and  to  transmit  it,  ele- 
vated and  refined,  to  succeeding  generations." 
Thus  the  obligation  to  fulfil  this  duty  can  no 
longer  be  ignored  by  those  who  have  assumed 
responsibility  for  the  education  of  youth  ;  perhaps 
especially  so  in  the  case  of  those  who,  in  the 
near  future,  will  exercise  much  influence  in  the 
affairs  of  men.  When  hygiene  is  defined  as  "  a 
study  of  the  means  at  our  disposal  for  the  right 
conduct  and  transmission  of  life,"  its  educational 
worth  and  the  strength  of  its  claims  on  the  at- 
tention of  teachers  admit  surely  of  no  more 
question,  of  no  more  hesitation  on  the  part  of 


62       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

those  who  control  subjects  and  curricula  in  schools ; 
rather  the  difficulty  lies  in  the  choice  of  method 
and  in  the  details  of  its  elaboration. 


III.  THE  PREPARATION  OF  THE  TEACHER. 

Very  brief  reference  only  can  be  made  to  this 
element  in  the  successful  teaching  of  hygiene ; 
though  when  the  claims  made  on  teachers,  by 
the  methods  advocated,  are  considered,  its  im- 
portance cannot  be  overlooked.  The  provision 
made  at  present  to  meet  these  demands  is  quite 
insufficient  for  those  working  in  secondary  schools, 
more  especially  for  men  teachers.  At  two  or 
three  training-colleges,  at  Bedford  College  for 
Women,  in  the  Women's  Department  of  King's 
College,  courses  of  varying  length  are  now  avail- 
able, but  mostly  at  the  cost  of  at  least  one  year's 
post-graduate  work,  in  addition  to  all  the  other 
demands  on  a  teacher's  time  and  purse.  The 
University  of  Liverpool  also  offers,  I  believe,  a 
better  opportunity  than  elsewhere  to  male  students 
of  education  for  gaining  insight  into  the  **  bio- 
logical study  of  hygiene,"  but  even  this  course 
falls  far  short  of  the  requirements  sketched  out 
by  Professor  Sherrington  at  the  Conference  on 
School  Hygiene  held  in  London  by  the  Royal 
Sanitary   Institute  in   1905.^     To   discuss   these 

*  "  Training  in  Hygiene  for  Teachers,"  Professor  C.  Sherring- 
ton, Transactions  Royal  Sanitary  Institute^  Vol.  XXV,  1905. 


THE    TEACHING   OF   HYGIENE  63 

requirements,  and  the  revision  of  Degree  or 
Training  Courses  necessary  to  comply  with  them, 
is  outside  the  terms  of  my  reference.  To  mention 
them,  as  most  intimately  associated  with  the 
education  of  children  in  the  principles  and  practice 
of  hygiene,  is  a  duty  owed  to  those  boys  and 
girls  who  look  to  us  to  fit  them  to  utilise,  as 
increased  opportunities  for  noble  living,  the  rich 
resources  of  twentieth-century  civilisation. 


VI 

THE  PLACE  OF  HYPOTHESES  IN  SCIENCE 
TEACHING 

By  T.  PERCY  NUNN,  M.A.,  D.Sc. 

IT  is  related  of  Sir  William  Hamilton  (the 
mathematician)  that  he  was  once  saluted  in 
the  street  by  a  non-scientific  friend  who 
had  just  come  from  a  place  where  the  elect 
were  comparing  impressions  of  his  newly  published 
magnum  opus.  Buttonholing  the  great  man,  the 
friend  expressed  in  warm  terms  both  his  con- 
gratulations and  his  sense  of  the  happiness  of  the 
meeting ;  '*  for,"  said  he,  '*  I  happen  to  have  three 
minutes  to  spare,  and  you  will  no  doubt  be  good 
enough  to  tell  me  what  are  Quaternions." 

Save  that  they  are  not  heirs  of  his  own  inven- 
tion that  are  called  in  question,  the  science  master 
is  in  a  position  with  much  the  same  difficulties  as 
Hamilton's  when  he  is  pulled  up  in  class  by  the 
Fourth  Form  boy  who  wants  to  know — inci- 
dentally—  "what  is  electricity?"  or  ''what  is 
ether?"  The  perplexity  of  the  teacher  at  such 
a  moment  will,  in  fact,  be  greater  the  more  he 
has  reflected  upon  the  questions  so  lightly  raised  ; 

64 


HYPOTHESES   IN   SCIENCE   TEACHING       65 

for  he  will  then  know  that  the  answers,  if  they 
are  to  be  secured  at  all,  must  be  sought  in  a 
''misty  mid  region"  of  controversy  and  specula- 
tion in  which  a  Fourth  Form  boy  would  find  him- 
self helplessly  befogged.  His  enquiries  raise,  in 
fact,  the  interesting  but  difficult  question  of  the 
"  import "  or  logical  standing  of  the  hypotheses 
which  play  so  conspicuous  a  part  in  the  develop- 
ment of  scientific  knowledge.  In  a  word,  are 
such  entities  as  ether  and  electricity  (as  many 
think)  some  of  the  final,  indestructible  realities 
of  which  the  universe  is  built,  or  are  they  (as 
others  maintain)  only  such  stuff  as  scientists' 
dreams  are  made  of?  To  the  consideration  of 
this  question — a  question  highly  relevant  (it  will 
appear)  to  the  daily  business  of  the  science 
teacher — this  article  is  addressed. 

In  a  well-known  popular  lecture  the  late 
Professor  Huxley  once  illustrated  with  character- 
istic brilliance  the  power  of  "prospective  and 
retrospective  prophecy"  which  is  the  proudest 
possession  of  Science,  and  with  characteristic 
lucidity  identified  it  with  the  patient  and  confi- 
dent use  of  one  great  principle — namely,  that 
like  effects  imply  like  causes.^  In  virtue  of  this 
principle  the  astronomer  who  has  shown  himself 
able  to  predict  future  celestial  occurrences  claims 
that  he  is  able  to  determine  with  equal  exactness 

^  "On  the  Method  of  Zadig,"  1880;  reprinted  in  Science  and 
Culture, 
r 


66       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

those  that  have  long  been  swallowed  up  in  the 
abysm  of  time ;  the  physicist  believes  that  by  its 
aid  he  can  assign  an  approximate  limit  to  the  age 
of  the  solid  earth  ;  while  the  geologist  makes  an 
obvious  use  of  it  when  he  interprets  a  ''  fossil " 
as  a  relic  of  ancient  life. 

Huxley's  illustrations  are  drawn  in  the  main 
from  the  sciences  of  which  he  was  so  conspicuous 
an  ornament,  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
he  would  have  included  the  results  of  the  physical 
sciences  in  his  catalogue  of  the  intellectual  con- 
quests man  has  won  by  the  aid  of  the  *' method 
of  Zadig."  The  *' ether"  which  to  Lord  Kelvin 
was  among  the  most  certain  of  realities ;  the 
** energy"  which,  according  to  Heaviside,  is 
(with  the  exception  of  ether)  the  only  thing  that 
exists,  all  else  being  "moonshine";  the  "mole- 
cules" the  details  of  whose  architecture  are  dis- 
cussed in  every  number  of  our  chemical  journals  ; 
the  "ions"  whose  masses  and  velocities  are  cata- 
logued (like  populations  and  death-rates)  among 
our  statistical  information  :  all  these  entities  are 
as  inaccessible  to  direct  human  observation  as 
the  eclipse  which  Airey  retrospectively  assigned 
to  the  afternoon  of  May  28,  B.C.  585,  or  the 
opossum  which  Cuvier  reconstructed  from  a  fossil 
jawbone ;  and  our  conviction  of  the  reality  of 
each  and  all  of  them  must  be  regarded  as  justified 
only  by  the  principle  that  like  effects  imply  like 
causes. 


HYPOTHESES    IN   SCIENCE   TEACHING        67 

But  while  it  is  probable  that  Huxley,  like  most 
scientists  in  his  day,  would  have  been  perfectly 
willing  to  make  these  further  applications,  it 
should  be  remarked  that  throughout  the  period 
of  development  of  modern  science  there  have 
been  thinkers  of  a  more  cautious  disposition. 
These  would  agree  that  it  is  the  peculiar  virtue 
of  the  scientific  mode  of  treating  experience  that 
it  enables  us  with  equal  confidence  to  predict 
experience  yet  to  come  or  to  '*  reconstruct "  the 
experience  of  our  ancestors ;  but  they  would 
make  a  more  or  less  clear  distinction  between 
the  observable  phenomena  which  are  really  the 
subject  of  prospective  or  retrospective  prophecy 
and  the  machinery  of  scientific  conceptions  by 
which  the  prophecy  is  brought  about.  With 
regard  to  the  former,  it  must  be  admitted  that 
they  were  once,  or  some  day  will  be,  as  "  real " 
as  the  facts  of  which  at  the  present  moment  my 
senses  are  making  me  cognisant ;  but  with  regard 
to  the  latter  it  is  possible  to  recognise  their  use- 
fulness as  the  instruments  of  scientific  prophecy 
and  yet  to  abstain  from  formulating  any  opinion 
with  regard  to  their  objective  reality. 

This  attitude  was  given  interesting  and  quaint 
expression  so  long  ago  as  1635  t)y  our  country- 
man Henry  Gellibrand,  who,  while  admitting 
the  value  of  the  Copernican  hypothesis  **  for  the 
more  easy  solving  the  apparent  anomalar  motions 
of  the  fixed  and  erratique  caelestiall  lights,  and 


68      BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

avoiding  that  supervaconeous  furniture  of  the 
Ancients,"^  yet  regarded  it  not  as  an  objective 
truth,  but  as  a  consequence  of  "the  imbecillity 
of  Man's  apprehension,  as  not  able  rightly  to 
conceive  of  this  admirable  opifice  of  God  "  in  all 
its  actual  complexity. 

Mach  maintains  that  the  great  Newton  was 
fully  aware  that  such  notions  as  **  central  force " 
are  merely  apparatus  for  the  intellectual  manipu- 
lation of  facts,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
this  was  true  in  the  main  of  the  attitude  of 
Joseph  Black  towards  his  *' caloric,"  and  of 
some  of  the  chemists  of  the  early  nineteenth 
century  (e.g.  Wollaston,  Davy,  Liebig,  Faraday) 
towards  the  atomic  theory.  But  the  astounding 
success  of  the  Newtonian  mechafnics  in  the  region 
of  physics  and  of  the  atomic  theory  in  chemistry 
inevitably  brought  with  it  a  general  abandon- 
ment of  this  cautious  attitude,  so  that  it  was  in 
effect  the  initiation  of  a  new  era  of  scientific 
thought  when  Kirchhoff  made  (in  1850)  his 
famous  pronouncement  that  the  business  of 
mechanics  is  not  to  explore  the  ''causes"  sup- 
posed to  lie  at  the  back  of  the  observed  pheno- 
mena of  material  movement,  but  merely  to 
describe  completely  and  in  the  simplest  manner 
the  motions  which  occur  in  nature.  At  a  still 
earlier    date    Ernst    Mach    had    begun    the    re- 

^  A  Discourse  Mathematicall  on  the  Variation  of  the  Magneti- 
call  Needle,  p.  30. 


HYPOTHESES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING       69 

searches  which  led  to  the  publication  in  1883  of 
his  Science  of  Mechanics,  a  work  in  which  for 
the  first  time  the  history  of  one  of  the  great 
bodies  of  scientific  doctrine  was  subjected  to  an 
exhaustive  examination  which  had  as  its  object 
the  determination  of  the  real  significance  and 
value  of  the  several  conceptions  that  have 
emerged  in  the  course  of  its  development.  In 
the  later  editions  of  this  admirable  book  Mach 
has  made  generous  acknowledgment  of  the  help 
which  his  cause  has  gained  from  the  publication 
in  1892  of  Professor  Karl  Pearsons  Grammar  of 
Science.  To  the  appearance  of  this  vigorous  and 
well-known  work  we  may  attribute,  in  fact,  most 
of  the  attention  that  is  now  given  in  this  country 
to  these  "  critical  "  enquiries  into  the  functions  and 
mode  of  development  of  the  sciences. 

Professor  Pearson  agrees  with  Mach  that  the 
function  of  science  in  every  field  of  its  activity 
is  simply  to  give  **  economical  descriptions"  of 
phenomena ;  and  the  whole  body  of  scientific 
concepts  and  **laws"  is  for  him  merely  so  much 
apparatus  for  "  resuming,"  i.e.  summarising  briefly 
and  effectively,  the  routines  of  the  '*  sense  im- 
presses" which  constitute  the  ultimate  data  of 
our  experience.  Professor  Pearson  has  discerned 
more  clearly  and  accepted  more  frankly  than  any 
other  writer  the  consequences  that  follow  from 
this  view.  How  far  these  consequences  carry 
him  from  the  pre-critical  position  of  Huxley  is 


70       BROAD  LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

shown  by  his  contention — which  may  seem  para- 
doxical even  to  the  emancipated — that  the  value 
of  the  theory  of  organic  evolution  lies  not  in  the 
revelation  of  a  previously  unknown  *'  history  "  of 
forms  of  life,  but  in  its  power  to  give  unity  to 
our  present  perceptual  experiences  of  those  forms 
— a  value  which  would  be  retained  intact  even 
if  we  should  discover  that  the  universe  as  we 
know  it  came  into  being  only  the  day  before 
yesterday ! 

Since  Professor  Pearson's  trenchant  exposition 
of  the  ** critical"  method  awakened  English 
scientists  from  their  **  dogmatic  slumber,"  they 
have,  to  a  constantly  increasing  extent,  been  in- 
fluenced by  authors  (such  as  Duhem,  Poincare, 
Ostwald,  Hertz,  Ward,  Driesch)  who  have  ex- 
plored the  several  provinces  of  science  from 
similar  points  of  view.  As  a  result,  our  leading 
scientific  writers  now  constandy  admit  the  ne- 
cessity of  defining  their  attitude  on  a  question 
which  they  find  it  impossible  to  ignore.  Thus 
on  the  one  hand  we  have  a  President  of  the 
Chemical  Section  of  the  British  Association 
urging  that  the  atomic  theory  propounded  by 
Dal  ton  **is  not  founded  upon  the  metaphysical 
conception  of  material  discontinuity,  and  is  not 
explained  or  illuminated  by  it " ;  ^  while  on  the 
other  hand  we  have  a  distinguished  physicist  ^  re- 

*  Professor  Divers,  Brit.  Assoc.  Reports^  1902,  p.  558. 
2  Professor  Schuster,  Theory  of  Optics.,  1904  ;  Preface. 


HYPOTHESES   IN   SCIENCE   TEACHING        71 

garding  **with  the  utmost  concern"  the  growing 
**  evasion  school "  of  scientists  who  rest  content 
with  equations  correctly  describing  the  numerical 
relationship  between  observable  physical  phe- 
nomena without  an  attempt  to  exhibit  these 
phenomena  as  flowing  from  "the  mechanical 
properties  of  the  ether." 

The  science  teacher  may  be  pardoned  who, 
seeing  how  greatly  the  doctors  differ  on  these 
difficult  questions,  seeks  to  evade  the  necessity 
of  taking  up  any  attitude  towards  them.  On 
certain  terms  he  may  be  allowed  to  do  so.  If 
in  imparting  instruction  in  science  he  is  content 
to  regard  himself  as  equipping  his  pupil  with  so 
much  intellectual  apparatus  that  will  be  of  direct 
service  in  a  technical  or  professional  career,  then, 
without  doubt,  he  need  not  concern  himself  about 
the  ultimate  nature  of  any  particular  piece  of  this 
apparatus  so  long  as  it  is  convenient  and  trust- 
worthy. The  prospects  of  the  would-be  electrical 
engineer  will  not  obviously  be  furthered  by  curious 
enquiries  as  to  whether  electricity  is  really  the 
"juice"  of  the  workshop  or  merely  a  concept 
valuable  as  a  means  of  "  economical  description  "  ; 
the  future  chemical  manufacturer  is  not  clearly 
better  off  if  he  is  brought  to  suspect  that  graphi- 
cal formulae  are  merely  devices  for  "  resuming 
routines  of  perception."  But  if  the  teacher  lays 
stress  upon  the  "  educational  "  aspect  of  his  work; 
if  he  claims  that  its  chief  value  is  that  it  gives 


72       BROAD   LINES   IN  SCIENCE  TEACHING 

a  "training  in  scientific  method,"  then  he  cannot 
be  absolved  from  the  duty  of  facing  and  adopting 
some  answer  to  the  questions  which  scientific 
criticism  raises.  He  may  reject  the  destructive 
conclusions  which  so  many  recent  thinkers  have 
reached,  and  may  reaffirm  the  older  optimistic 
views  which  accepted  molecules  and  ether  as 
genuine  realities ;  but  he  must  wear  his  optimism 
with  a  difference.  In  the  first  place,  he  must  not 
base  it  on  ignorance  of  the  arguments  on  the 
other  side ;  and  in  the  second  place,  he  must  not 
force  it  upon  his  pupils.  It  is  falsifying  the  whole 
conception  of  a  training  in  scientific  method  to 
lead  boys  and  girls  to  adopt  unverified  hypo- 
theses as  established  and  final  results,  or  to  think 
they  have  found  ultimate  realities  where  there 
may  be  only  a  priori  assumptions.  Further,  it 
may  be  claimed  that  at  the  proper  epoch  in  the 
pupil's  development  a  little  ''scepticism  of  the 
instrument "  of  scientific  enquiries  (to  borrow  a 
phrase  from  Mr.  H.  G.  Wells)  is  an  excellent 
thing ;  tending  to  correct  false  impressions  as  to 
the  labour  with  which  the  main  positions  of  science 
have  been  gained  and  held,  and  to  give  true  views 
of  the  greatness  of  the  achievements  which  those 
positions  represent. 

The  practical  application  of  these  principles 
of  intellectual  ethics  will  best  be  illustrated  by 
discussing  a  concrete  case  of  considerable  import- 
ance, namely,  the  question  whether  in  chemistry 


HYPOTHESES   IN   SCIENCE   TEACHING       73 

we  shall  teach  the  objective  reality  of  "molecules" 
and  "  atoms."  Whatever  conclusion  we  may  reach 
on  this  matter,  it  may  be  assumed  that  we  all 
start  by  recognising  that  atoms  and  molecules 
appear  in  chemical  theory  as  means  of  interpreta- 
tion of  a  certain  group  of  facts  concerning  the 
quantitative  aspect  of  chemical  change.  For  this 
reason  almost  every  teacher  would  teach  his  class 
these  facts — the  so-called  '*  laws  of  combination  " 
— before  he  introduced  atoms  and  molecules  by 
way  of  "  explanation  "  of  them.  All  will  agree, 
moreover,  that  the  thought  of  chemical  changes 
as  due  to  the  kaleidoscopic  combinations  of  sets 
of  homogeneous  atoms  has,  in  addition  to  its 
explanatory  value,  great  heuristic  value :  that  is, 
that  it  is  fertile  in  the  suggestion  of  new  problems 
for  investigation.  But  agreement  will  go  no 
further.  To  some  the  atoms  and  molecules  will 
appear  to  have  made  out  a  strong  claim  for 
recognition  as  real  existents — even  as  more  real 
than  the  gross  masses  of  *' compounds"  whose 
behaviour  they  were  invoked  to  explain.  Those 
infected  with  the  critical  virus  will,  on  the  other 
hand,  maintain  that  the  sole  reality  of  atoms  and 
molecules  lies  in  their  existence  as  ideas  in  the 
mind  of  the  thinker,  whose  theoretical  activities 
they  serve  by  their  power  of  summarising  the 
results  of  chemical  experiments  and  of  suggesting 
new  lines  of  investigation.  It  is  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  no  demonstration  of  either  of  these  posi- 


74       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

tions  is  obtainable/  and  that  men  will  adopt  one 
or  the  other  less  on  rational  grounds  than  as  the 
result  of  the  temperamental  differences  that  make 
some  Liberals  and  others  Conservatives,  some 
Platonists  and  others  Aristotelians ;  that  the  ethi- 
cal problem  arises  for  the  teacher.  On  the  one 
hand,  he  cannot  ask  his  pupils  to  accept,  upon  the 
basis  of  a  very  slight  knowledge  of  phenomena, 
a  view  which  men  whose  knowledge  covers  a 
vast  range  reject.  On  the  other  hand,  he  cannot 
expect  the  immature  mind  to  adopt  with  comfort 
the  somewhat  Gilbertian  attitude  of  a  **  perma- 
nently provisional "  acceptance  of  atoms  and 
molecules ;  the  pupil  will  either  think  real  what 
he  makes  use  of  or  will  not  make  use  of  what  he 
does  not  think  real. 

These  considerations  combine  to  suggest  that 
the  introduction  of  the  ordinary  concepts  of  atoms 
and  molecules  should  be  postponed  until  the  pupil 
is  ripe  for  the  critical  attitude  and  has  an  acquaint- 
ance with  chemical  facts  that  entitles  him  to  adopt 
it.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  an  experimental  course  no  difficulty  in 
giving  ''economical  description"  of  the  quantita- 
tive circumstances  of  chemical  change  without 
invoking  the  concepts  of  discrete  atoms  and 
molecules ;  and  there  is  no  need  to  employ  these 
concepts  as  a  stimulus  to  further  investigation. 

1  It  should  be  noted  that  Duhem  considers  that  experiments 
disprove  the  existence  of  molecules. 


HYPOTHESES   IN    SCIENCE   TEACHING        75 

Thus  there  is  nothinof  that  renders  their  introduc- 
tion  indispensable,  and,  if  the  preceding  argument 
is  sound,  it  should  be  avoided.^  In  the  writer's 
own  practice  any  inconveniences  that  would  result 
from  this  avoidance  are  (he  believes)  evaded  by 
the  early  introduction  of  the  terms  "atom"  and 
** molecule"  in  senses  which  preserve  all  the 
implications  necessary  to  make  them  useful  in- 
struments of  description  and  investigation  with- 
out carrying  the  further  and  possibly  illegitimate 
notion  of  material  discontinuity. 

In  the  earlier  stage  of  this  use  a  **  molecule  "  of 
a  compound  substance  means  simply  the  **  small 
mass  "  of  it  under  examination  ;  an  *'  atom  "  of  an 
element  is  the  smallest  quantity  of  that  element 
that  can  be  removed  from  the  molecule  or  added 
to  it  so  as  to  produce  a  homogeneous  result.  Thus 
an  "atom"  of  oxygen  can  be  removed  from  a 
"  molecule "  of  puce-coloured  oxide  of  lead  by 
heating  it,  while  the  yellow  oxide  thus  produced 
can  be  made  by  reduction  to  yield  another 
"atom."     To  state  that  a  molecule  of  the  puce- 

'  The  introduction  has  been  defended  on  the  grounds  :  (i)  that 
it  helps  to  "  train  the  scientific  imagination,"  and  (2)  that  in  atoms 
and  molecules  we  have  an  "  explanation  "  as  opposed  to  a  "  mere 
description "  of  phenomena.  The  former  plea  is  too  obviously 
connected  with  what  Professor  William  James  would  call  the 
"  chromo-science  "  of  the  popular  lecture  to  call  for  serious  argu- 
ment. For  the  relation  between  description  and  explanation  here 
the  reader  may  be  referred  to  the  author's  paper  on  Causal  Ex- 
planation in  the  Proceedings  of  tJu  Aristotelian  Society^  1907*  or 
to  the  chapter  on  Science  Teaching  in  Adamson's  Practice  of 
Instruction. 


76       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

coloured  oxide  contains  two  atoms  of  oxygen  is, 
then,  a  brief  and  effective  way  of  summarising 
much  of  its  observed  behaviour.  Moreover, 
such  a  use  of  the  terms  performs  the  second 
function  expected  of  the  **  conceptual  machinery  " 
of  science:  it  suggests  further  investigation. 
Are  the  two  "atoms"  of  the  element  identical  in 
weight  ?  The  discovery  that  they  are  so  in  this 
case  and  in  others  leads  to  the  attribution  of  a 
quantitative  significance  to  the  terms  atom  and 
molecule.  The  discovery  of  the  relations  known 
as  the  'Maw  of  reciprocal  proportions"  makes  an 
important  elaboration  of  this  quantitative  signifi- 
cance possible,  and  leads  to  the  establishment  in 
due  course  of  a  series  of  ''atomic  weights,"  with 
consequent  ''molecular"  weights,  constructed  on 
the  usual  conventional  basis,  but  still  without  any 
reference  to  the  hypothesis  of  discontinuity. 

The  third  stage  is  that  in  which  the  concepts  of 
atom  and  molecule  are  applied — with  the  same 
limitations — to  the  description  of  the  phenomena 
of  combination  in  which  gases  are  involved.  The 
study  of  some  simple  cases  has  already  brought 
the  conviction  that  the  numbers  of  combining 
atoms  of  gaseous  substances  can  be  predicted 
from  the  relations  of  their  volumes.  The  first 
form  that  this  conviction  takes  is  the  proposition 
that  under  identical  conditions  of  temperature 
and  pressure  atoms  of  all  gaseous  elements 
occupy  the  same  volume.     Further  consideration 


HYPOTHESES   IN    SCIENCE   TEACHING        77 

of  such  phenomena  as  the  combination  of  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen  to  form  steam,  of  hydrogen  and 
chlorine  to  form  hydrochloric  acid,  leads  to  a 
second  proposition  :  the  molecule  of  a  compound 
gas  occupies  the  volume  of  two  gaseous  atoms. 
These  two  propositions  can  be  made  to  yield 
(and  probably  in  a  more  direct  and  simple  way) 
the  results  that  follow  from  Avogadro's  Law — 
which  is,  of  course,  an  interpretation  of  the  same 
original  facts  in  terms  of  "  material  discontinuity." 
Thus  when  carbon  is  burned  in  excess  of  oxygen 
a  molecule  of  "carbonic  acid  gas"  is  formed 
without  change  of  volume  :  the  combination  must 
therefore  have  affected  two  atoms  of  oxygen. 
Similarly,  a  given  volume  of  nitric  oxide  com- 
bines with  half  as  much  oxygen  to  yield  the 
original  volume  of  nitric  peroxide  :  the  molecule 
of  nitric  oxide  must  be  converted  into  a  molecule 
of  the  peroxide  by  the  direct  addition  of  an  atom 
of  oxygen. 

In  this  way  it  is  possible  to  cover  all  the 
ground  usually  included  in  an  elementary  course 
without  appeal  to  the  assumption — certainly  un- 
verifiable  at  this  stage — that  matter  is  essentially 
discontinuous.  But  the  pupil  who  passes  on  to 
the  systematic  study  of  carbon  compounds  can 
hardly  make  progress  without  using  the  concept 
of  the  molecule  as  a  (chemically)  ultimate  material 
system  both  to  '*  resume  "  the  phenomena  within 
his  range  of  observation  and  to  guide  his  further 


78       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

explorations  of  the  field. ^  At  this  point  then 
this  final  qualification  of  the  now  familiar 
term  should  be  introduced  with  an  explanation 
— for  which  the  pupil  should  now  be  ready — 
of  the  circumstances  which  make  possible  a  di- 
vergence of  opinion  as  to  the  actuality  of  atoms 
and  molecules. 

The  reader  will  have  no  difficulty  in  finding 
problems  similar  to  the  one  here  briefly  discussed. 
What  is  the  origin  of  the  common  tendency  to 
believe  that  a  **  compound  "  such  as  water  actually 
contains  its  "elements,"  and  how  far  should  the 
teacher  make  use  of  it,  how  far  check  it  by 
criticism.**  What  is  the  precise  logical  status  of 
*'heat"  and  its  so-called  *'laws  of  transference".'* 
How  should  the  notions  of  "force"  and  "mass" 
be  taught  so  as  to  bring  out  clearly  their  relation 
to  the  great  group  of  observable  phenomena  with 
which  they  are  concerned  ?  These  and  the  many 
similar  questions  of  great  importance  and  interest 
to  the  science  teacher  admit  of  only  one  mode  of 
satisfactory  answer.  The  teacher  must  in  each 
case  enquire  what  are  the  facts  of  observation  to 
which  the  explanatory  idea  is  relevant,  and  must 
then  determine  whether  the  idea  consists  merely 
in  a  grouping  of  these  facts  or  whether  it  pur- 
ports to  represent  existences,  themselves  unveri- 

*  The  consideration  of  ozone,  the  dissociation  phenomena  in 
elements  and  certain  vapour  densities  may  be  used  as  the  motive 
for  passing  from  the  earlier  position  to  the  later. 


HYPOTHESES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING        79 

fiable/  deduced  from  the  verifiable  data  of 
observation.  In  the  latter  case,  the  general  con- 
siderations set  forth  in  this  essay  suggest  a  mode 
of  pedagogic  treatment  comparable  with  that 
exemplified  in  the  case  of  atoms  and  molecules. 

'  It  is  perhaps  unnecessary  to  point  out  that  the  study  of  the 
emergence  of  the  idea  in  the  history  of  the  science  is  frequently  a 
most  useful  clue  to  its  real  significance. 


^1 


VII 


THE   CLAIMS   OF   **  RESEARCH "  WORK 
AND  EXAMINATIONS 

By  the  editor 

THE  teaching  of  Science  up  to  Univer- 
sity standard  may  be  roughly  divided 
into  three  stages:  (i)  the  Nature- 
study  stage,  lasting  until  the  age  of 
twelve  or  thirteen  ;  (2)  the  Preparatory  Science 
stage,  from  this  age  until  about  sixteen — a  course 
in  which  all  members  of  the  school  should  join  ; 
and  (3)  the  Special  Science  stage,  in  which  boys, 
for  their  profession,  or  on  account  of  particular 
interest  in  the  subject,  deal  more  systematically 
with  one  or  two  branches — physics,  chemistry, 
biology,  as  the  case  may  be.  Such  a  division 
of  the  work  into  three  parts  has  been  ably 
discussed  by  Dr.  Nunn,^  who  argues  that  each 
part  corresponds  roughly  to  a  stage  of  mental 
development.  The  cleavage  shows  itself  in  the 
writer  s  experience ;  it  will  no  doubt  be  less 
marked  in  some  institutions  than  others. 

Work    in   the    first    stage  varies   much    from 

^  J.  W.  Adamson,  The  Practice  of  Instruction^  iQo?. 
80 


THE   CLAIMS   OF   "RESEARCH"   WORK       8i 

school  to  school,  both  in  amount  and  kind  ;  for 
our  present  purpose  its  chief  value  is  to  send  up 
boys  and  girls  to  the  higher  classes  with  an 
interest  in  observational  study,  and — as  Shen- 
stone  urged — with  the  feeling  that,  however 
much  labour  and  thought  must  be  given  to 
experimental  detail,  it  is  still  **  worth  while." 

In  the  second  stage  there  is  a  fair  uniformity 
of  subject-matter  in  different  schools  :  ^  topics 
such  as  mensuration,  mechanics,  heat,  the  chem- 
istry of  air  and  water,  of  acids,  bases,  and  salts, 
are  dealt  with ;  or  botany  may  be  chosen — 
notably  in  girls'  schools — or,  perhaps,  towards 
the  end  of  the  time,  the  elements  of  electricity 
and  magnetism.  Mr.  Eggar,  in  Public  Schools 
from  Within,  gives  reasons  for  choosing  heat 
and  elementary  chemistry  as  the  most  suitable 
subjects  to  fill  the  small  time  he  asks  for — time 
doubtless  meant  to  be  a  minimum  even  for  the 
older  Public  Schools.  There  is  good  ground  for 
Mr.  Eggar's  view  that  "  not  every  boy  takes 
kindly  to  mechanics,"  and  that  the  apparatus 
described  and  exhibited  by  Mr.  C.  E.  Ashford  is 
too  elaborate  for  the  junior  student  who  is  not  to 
be  a  specialist ;  but  with  a  practical  class,  four- 
teen or  sixteen  in  number,  of  average  intelligence 
and  some  previous  cultivation  on  the  observa- 
tional side,  it  is  possible  to  get  up  a  very  fair 
interest  in  machines.     Pulleys  are  full  of  "life  "  ; 

*  Cf.  Mr.  Latter's  recent  Report,  referred  to  in  preface. 
G 


82       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

and  the  final  impact  of  a  truck  on  some  impro- 
vised buffer,  after  a  successful  run  on  an  inclined 
plane,  is  sugar  enough  to  coat  the  pill  of  tabu- 
lating and  plotting  the  results.  Especially  if  the 
apparatus  needs  to  be  refitted  or  adapted  to 
some  extent,  and  calls  for  filing,  hammering,  or 
oiling,  the  occupation  becomes  a  real  pleasure. 
And  in  optics,  too,  quite  a  gratifying  interest 
can  be  developed,  if  the  geometrical  side  is 
relieved  by  the  actual  construction  of  micro- 
scopes, investigation  of  hairs,  etc.  etc.  All 
this  suggests  that  we  have  not  yet  reached 
the  stage  where  examinations  have  to  be  con- 
sidered, and  such  is  our  hope.  It  ought  to  be 
possible,  at  least  in  the  case  of  boys  who  will 
stay  at  school  until  nearly  eighteen,  to  stave  off 
till  then  external  tests  which  affect  their  prospects 
or  reputation. 

The  elementary  science  we  have  been  discuss- 
ing can  well  be  treated  in  close  conformity  with 
heuristic  principles.  The  teacher  must  give  to 
these  boys,  of  from  thirteen  to  sixteen  years,  as 
little  direct  information  and  explanation  as  pos- 
sible regarding  the  problem  in  hand  ;  encouraging 
them  to  form  their  own  working  hypotheses  and 
to  test  them  without  much  help.  Help  in  some 
measure  is  nearly  always  needed  ;  but  since  so 
much  of  school  work  tends  to  take  the  form  of 
direct  instruction  with  little  appeal — by  the 
student's  own   effort   or   in   any   other  way — to 


THE   CLAIMS   OF   "RESEARCH"   WORK       83 

first-hand  evidence,  it  is  good  that  the  authority- 
factor  should  be  reduced  in  the  laboratory  to 
a  minimum.  This  puts  a  greater  strain  on 
interest  at  the  start,  but  gives  a  steadier  purpose 
in  the  end. 

Professor  Armstrong's  many  and  vigorous  con- 
tributions to  the  subject^  have  already  had  a 
large  hand  in  creating  new  practices  and  spread- 
ing conviction  in  favour  of  training  alertness, 
thoroughness,  self-reliance,  rather  than  of  com- 
municating information  alone ;  and  it  may  seem 
to  some  needless  to  put  down  again  what  has 
been  so  often  written  before.  But  science 
teachers  still  growl  here  and  there  at  what  they 
regard  (perhaps  rightly)  as  excesses  of  heuristic 
fanatics,  and  there  is  yet  room  for  some  defence 
on  the  heuristic  side.  To  feel  successful  in  its 
application  the  chief  conditions  are,  on  the  one 
hand,  to  give  the  method  a  fair  chance,  i.e.  to 
have  a  long  course  and  a  strong  course  in  physics 
and  chemistry  ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  not  to  be 
tied  by  it  when  it  appears  to  need  supplementing 
by  direct  teaching. 

Given  laboratory  work  of  any  sort — and  now 
it  is  in  England  an  accepted  fact — it  must  be- 
come in  some  degree  heuristic.  Wc  have  to 
reckon  with  the  independent  curiosity  of  boys  ; 
we  have  to  reckon  with  the  complexity  of  the 

1  The  Teaching  of  Scientific  Method.     Macmillan,  1903. 


84       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

phenomena  which  we  are  always  trying  to 
simplify  for  the  purposes  of  study.  Die  Bosheit 
der  Materie,  as  a  German  friend  once  called  it — 
the  "cussedness"  of  matter — will  provide  an 
outlet  for  original  effort.  The  teacher  should 
exploit  and  extend  this  application  of  free  judg- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  boys,  being  always 
restrained  from  giving  prompt  and  obvious  sug- 
gestions :  so  to  find  a  new  interest  in  the  growing 
resourcefulness  of  his  pupils  when  the  subject- 
matter  itself  may  be  losing  freshness  by  dint  of 
repetition. 

It  is  possible  to  defend  the  heuristic  position 
and  yet  to  be  alive  to  its  dangers.  We  cannot 
rigidly  exclude  all  information  which  has  not  been 
obtained  at  first  hand.  If  it  were  possible,  the 
result  would  probably  be  a  lessening  of  interest  and 
an  eventual  barren  condition  of  the  mind.  Each 
teacher  is  no  doubt  unconsciously — or  consciously 
— judging  from  day  to  day  which  is  the  particular 
thing  required  to  help  a  given  individual  or  a 
given  division  over  a  difficult  place.  If  we  realise 
that  those  who  are  most  keen  to  work  and  to 
discover  are  also  keenest  to  talk  and  to  read,  we 
shall  see  that  there  is  a  certain  reciprocity  in  these 
things.  If  information  at  second  hand  is  con- 
tinually being  applied  and  tested  by  a  boy  who  is 
working  out  some  little  problem  of  his  own,  he  is 
clearly  treating  his  work  at  least  as  critically  as 
does  the  ordinary  scientific  man,  who  depends  in  a 


THE   CLAIMS   OF   "RESEARCH"   WORK       85 

hundred  ways  on  information  which  he  accepts 
from  a  limited  number  of  chosen  accredited 
authorities.  But  this  is  an  aspect  of  the  case 
which  generally  adjusts  itself ;  and  we  must  not  be 
led  too  far  from  our  main  contention. 

To  repeat  then :  We  defend  in  the  second 
stage  of  teaching — between  the  ages  of  thirteen 
and  sixteen — an  application  of  the  heuristic  method 
as  liberal  as  may  be  :  thorough-going  in  the  sense 
of  acquiring  as  much  first-hand  information  as 
possible,  and  depending  as  much  on  independent 
endeavour  as  possible  (but  not  in  the  sense  of  dis- 
couraging private  reading  and  discussion  on  all 
sorts  and  conditions  of  scientific  matters).  The 
work  so  done  will  not  reach,  except  in  very  easy 
experiments,  a  high  degree  of  accuracy  ;  but  laws 
will  have  been  arrived  at  in  a  rough-and-ready 
form  :  approximate  :  not  so  well  established  as  to 
be  applied  always  with  confidence  by  a  critical 
pupil,  but  well  enough  for  the  needs  of  the  average 
person  of  the  given  age.  The  work  regarded  as 
a  body  of  exact  information  will  need  to  be  further 
supplemented  at  a  later  stage. 

Now  at  the  end  of  our  second  stage  boys  begin 
to  think  of  professional  careers,  and  discover  that 
they  need  to  pass  examinations  ;  and  in  consider- 
ing such  tests  inevitable,  and  in  some  degree  use- 
ful and  good,  the  present  writer  may  have  to  part 
company  with  some  adherents  of  the  "  research  " 
school — probably  with  Professor  Armstrong  him- 


86       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

self.  But  supposing  we  only  consider  examinations 
as  unavoidable  in  the  present  state  of  affairs,  we  still 
have  to  ask  the  question  :  How  is  the  work  to 
develop  beyond  this  point  ?  In  the  writer's 
experience  the  examinations  are  the  various 
matriculation  tests  of  the  newer  Universities,  the 
Army  Preliminary,  and  at  a  higher  level,  the 
examinations  for  scholarships  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge.  There  is  a  measure  of  uniformity 
about  them  :  they  are  nearly  all  modelled  on 
lines  in  so  far  modern  that  boys  who  have  done 
experiments,  or  have  seen  them  done,  are  likely 
to  score  marks  thereby  ;  and  in  examinations  of 
the  higher  grade  there  are  ''  practical "  papers. 

Questions  may  be  set,  for  instance,  in  mechanics 
or  chemistry,  referring  to  experimental  work  done 
in  early  days  ;  but  the  early  work  alone  will 
not  be  enough  :  to  have  it  at  his  fingers'  ends 
the  boy  will  have  needed  not  only  to  take  up 
new  chapters  of  his  subject,  but  also  thoroughly  to 
revise  the  old.  He  must  read  books,  repeat  ex- 
periments, work  numerical  examples.  And  he 
will  seldom  have  quite  enough  time  :  for  the  boy 
of  average  intelligence  only  gets  through  with  a 
struggle.  So,  though  the  examinations  are  based 
on  experimental  syllabuses,  the  standard  required 
and  the  lack  of  time  will  cut  down  chances  of  con- 
tinued heuristic  treatment.  This  is  by  no  means 
all  loss  ;  for  the  extra  grind  involved  in  close 
reading  and  paper  work,  with  the  straightforward 


THE   CLAIMS   OF  "RESEARCH"   WORK       87 

stimulus  of  bread-and-butter  urgencies,  is  a  fine 
discipline  for  an  easy-going,  not  brilliant  boy,  who 
may  have  scraped  through  the  course  of  a  kindly 
"  modern "  teacher  with  too  little  real  wear  and 
tear ;  and  even  those  who  have  worked  best  are 
often  glad  of  the  change  to  a  more  coherent, 
deductive  ordering  of  the  subject. 

Some  measure  then  of  working  for  examina- 
tion will  have  its  place  in  the  last  years  of  school 
life  ;  there  seems  to  be  more  use  in  wrestling 
with  such  tests  than  in  railing  at  them.  The 
crucial  question  is :  Does  the  admission  of  so 
much  mean  the  abandonment  of  the  ''  research" 
method — until  the  problematic  future  when  the 
occasional  boy  has  become  **  post-graduate "  ? 
If  the  only  available  time  is  class-time,  then 
probably  such  a  fate  is  sealed  ;  but  to  a  pupil  of 
fair  keenness  the  solving  of  an  experimental 
problem  makes,  ere  this,  a  strong  appeal  ;  and  if 
some  sort  of  prize  can  be  offered  as  an  extra 
stimulus,  and  if  the  laboratories  can  be  put,  to 
some  extent,  at  the  disposal  of  boys  in  their  free 
time,  it  is  possible  that  good  work  may  still  be 
done.  A  great  number  of  problems  need  not  be 
dealt  with  in  the  course  of  the  year ;  on  the  con- 
trary, the  fewer  the  questions  studied  the  better, 
so  long  as  three  or  four  hours  are  put  in  every 
week.  Laboratories  are  doubtless  not  equally 
accessible  in  all  schools,  and  in  the  case  of  a  day- 
school  questions  of  time  and  distance  would  arise; 


88       BROAD   LINES  IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

but  we  have  heard  of  boys  at  such  a  school 
carrying  out  the  sort  of  private  investigation  we 
advocate,  and  lecturing  on  the  material  gathered. 
This  matter,  the  early  tackling  of  really  in- 
dependent work,  is  especially  interesting  for 
teachers  devoted  to  the  history  of  their  subject. 
Is  it  compatible  with  keenness  for  the  didactic 
suggestions  we  can  get  from  the  slow  growth — 
in  history — of  clear  ideas,  to  encourage  a  boy  at 
seventeen  to  plunge  into  the  middle  of  wireless 
telegraphy,  or  the  chemistry  of  the  rare  earths, 
or  the  study  of  enzymes  ?  Yes,  if  he  is  minded 
to  do  such  a  thing.  The  history  of  the  science 
is  of  chief  value  to  the  teacher ;  to  him  it  is  a 
pathfinder  in  thorny  places  (and  an  intellectual 
pleasure  at  all  times) ;  but  the  enthusiastic  junior 
student  has  found,  instinctively,  a  number  of 
short  cuts  over  relatively  open  ground,  and  it 
would  be  pedantic  to  call  him  back  merely  to 
show  a  path  of  which  he  does  not  feel  the  need. 
Just  as  a  small  boy  who  is  keen  on  electricity  may 
construct  a  voltaic  cell  and  perform  certain  ex- 
periments, without  a  clear  idea  of  the  chemical 
changes  taking  place,  so  an  older  boy  may  be 
quite  successful  in  an  advanced  piece  of  work, 
although  unable  to  answer  all  test-questions  which 
naturally  suggest  themselves  to  the  teacher.  To 
make  progress  with  a  minimum  of  knowledge  is 
the  mark  of  a  most  important  sort  of  ability ; 
which  depends  in  great  part  on  grasping,  quickly 


THE  CLAIMS   OF   "RESEARCH"   WORK       89 

and  instinctively,  where  it  is  safe  to  apply  the 
said  minimum  and  where  not. 

We,  who  for  teaching  purposes  must  keep  up  a 
nodding  acquaintance  with  a  range  of  work  such 
as  (when  it  has  grown  a  stage)  is  material  for  three 
or  four  University  professors,  may  not  realise  in 
ourselves  how  concentration  helps  an  effort  along 
one  line.  The  accumulation  of  knowledge  is  to 
some  extent  an  obstacle,  both  for  teachers  and 
taught.  True,  added  knowledge  is  always  a 
stepping-stone  to  new  ranges  of  possible  initiative; 
and  no  doubt  there  are  more  such  ranges  calling 
for  attention  than  ever  before ;  but  the  frowning 
accumulation  of  stepping-stones  is  apt  to  look 
more  essential  than  it  really  is.  If  native  in- 
dependent wit  can  run  its  course  alongside  the 
more  orthodox  progress  of  the  receptive  intellect, 
much  more  vitality  goes  into  the  effort.  It 
seems  inevitable  that  examinations  of  the  school- 
leaving  type  should  put  a  premium  on  receptivity  ; 
that  holds  good  even  in  Germany,  the  land  of 
research  ;  all  that  can  be  done  should  be  done,  to 
foster  the  other  sort  of  growth. 

To  those  who  urge  that  any  form  of  loose, 
inaccurate  knowledge  must  be  bad,  it  may  be 
answered  that  the  present  defence  of  such  "teach- 
ing "  is  meant  to  be  limited — strictly — to  know- 
ledge that  is  to  be  used  in  doing  something.  If 
there  is  no  pressing  interest  of  an  active  sort, 
then  there  is  no  excuse  for  going  a  little  way  into 


90       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

any  chapter  and  stopping  at  haziness ;  unless, 
indeed,  difficulties  are  insuperable.  And  if  it  is 
urged  that  an  active  interest  in  new  enquiries 
is  too  much  to  be  expected  of  schoolboys,  and  is 
really  only  a  pleasant  fancy  of  an  unpractical 
teacher,  we  reply  that  some  of  the  famous 
people,  at  least,  have  made  an  early  start. 
Galilei  came  upon  the  matter  of  the  pendulum  at 
the  age  of  seventeen ;  Perkin  was  a  research 
assistant  at  seventeen  ;  Kelvin  published  a  paper 
on  Fourier's  expansions  at  the  same  age ;  and 
though  we  may  not  hope  for  results  of  this  mag- 
nitude, yet  we  may  hope  for  some  results.  There 
is  certainly  much  native  keenness  which  in  early 
days  goes  begging  for  the  want  of  a  little  guid- 
ance ;  and  by  the  time  that  an  older  eye  has  seen 
more  clearly  wherein  opportunities  consist,  bread- 
and-butter  studies,  administrative  responsibilities, 
et  hoc  genus  omne,  may  crowd  out  pure  science 
altogether. 

The  teacher  who  goes  out  of  his  way  to  en- 
courage early  effort  will  find,  of  course,  that  he  is 
adding  greatly  to  his  own  work ;  but  it  is  a  most 
interesting  sort  of  work,  and  it  repays  the  teacher 
in  one  practical  way ;  for  a  few  people  in  a  school 
who  have  been  made  really  keen  on  one  special 
question  or  another  raise  the  standard  of  interest 
of  the  rest ;  free-time  work  may  be  permitted  for 
conversation  when  class-work  would  be  barred. 
This  gives  renewed  interest  in  points  of  ordinary 


THE   CLAIMS   OF   "RESEARCH"   WORK       91 

class-teaching.  So-and-so's  direct-vision  spectro- 
scope **  comes  up"  spontaneously  under  prisms; 
A's  model  aeroplane  or  B's  vacuum-tube  become 
familiar,  and  give  new  points  of  contact.  No 
doubt  commonplace  things  like  cameras,  toy- 
motors,  and  footballs  may  be  even  fuller  of  sug- 
gestion, but  they  lose  a  little  in  being  common- 
place. 

A  word  may  be  added  to  explain  more  in 
detail  the  kind  of  problem  that  has  been  recently 
attacked  in  the  writer's  laboratory,  with  fair  suc- 
cess, in  the  ''free- time"  way  that  has  been 
described :  construction  of  a  sliding-coil  galvano- 
meter with  determination  of  resistance  and  curve 
showing  sensitiveness  ;  construction  of  a  rather 
large  electro-magnet,  with  tests  of  field-strength 
by  ballistic  method ;  construction  of  "cymometer" 
and  measurement  of  wave-lengths  of  transmitters ; 
"wireless"  signalling  ( Lodge- Muirhead)  over  half 
a  mile  ;  ^  construction  of  reflecting  magnetometer 
and  tests  of  various  steels  ;  separation  of  cerium, 
lanthanum,  and  didymium  in  cerite,  with  a  study 
of  the  absorption  spectrum  of  the  last-named ; 
study  of  niobium  and  tantalum  in  columbite ; 
study  of  the  hardness  of  various  well  and  other 
waters  in  the  district ;  working  up  of  weather 
reports,  photographic  and  electric  effects  of  radio- 
active substances,  etc.  etc. 

*  With  forty-foot  poles  this  only  requires  a  toy  coil  giving  a 
quarter-inch  spark,— and  a  simple  carbon-contact  coherer. 


92       BROAD   LINES   IN  SCIENCE  TEACHING 

It  is  worth  noting  that  the  common  practice  in 
junior  laboratories  of  working  in  pairs  can  some- 
times be  employed  with  advantage  at  this  stage 
too. 

How  many  boys  in  a  school  will  find  interest, 
time,  and  energy  to  carry  out  such  a  piece  of 
experimental  work  ?  At  a  guess  it  may  be 
hazarded  that  half  the  public  of  available  age — 
sixteen  to  eighteen — will  be  interested  enough, 
and  half  of  these  will  be  not  too  busy.  This 
sounds  a  small  number :  only  five  per  cent,  per- 
haps, of  the  whole  school ;  but  as  was  said  above, 
it  all  helps  to  create  an  infectious  interest  in 
science,  and  so  the  total  result  cannot  be  so  easily 
estimated.  In  such  a  way  a  number  of  those  who 
would  not  attempt  a  piece  of  work  needing  really 
hard  thinking  may  be,  and  are,  encouraged  to 
attempt  simple  bits  of  apparatus-making,  which 
often  turn  out  of  great  educational  value. 

To  sum  up.  The  heuristic  method,  which  is 
commonly  practised  in  dealing  with  introductory 
science  work,  and  which  must  give  place,  when 
the  examination  stage  is  reached,  to  a  speedier 
method  of  accumulating  information,  may  be 
followed  up  with  work  of  an  attractive  sort  done 
in  free  time,  to  the  advantage,  eventually,  of 
the  three  concerned :  subject-matter,  teacher,  and 
pupil. 


VIII 

SCHOOL   MATHEMATICS 
IN    RELATION  TO  SCHOOL  SCIENCE 

By  T.  JAMES  GARSTANG,   M.A. 

IN  this  paper  we  propose  to  discuss  the 
possibilities  of  school  mathematics,  especi- 
ally from  the  point  of  view  of  its  correlation 
with  school  science.  Mathematics  most 
suitable  for  school  purposes  is  neither  the  same 
science  as  that  studied  in  universities,  nor  as  that 
defined  as  *'  pure  mathematics,"  by  those  dealing 
with  the  modern  problem  of  mathematical  logic. 
School  mathematics  cannot  possibly  be  limited  to 
processes  of  mere  logical  deduction  and  to  pro- 
positions concerning  purely  abstract  objects  and 
relations  ;  though  it  ultimately  may  concern  itself 
with  such  truths,  it  has  regard  also  to  the 
immature  nature  of  the  child-mind.  In  accord- 
ance with  this  latter  necessity  school  mathematics 
begins  with  separate  things  and  facts,  and  with 
any  questions  relating  to  number,  size,  and  form 
arising  therefrom  ;  it  passes,  through  processes 
of  comparison  and  induction,  to  statements  and 
truths  of  some  though  perhaps  of  very  limited 

93 


94       BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

generality ;  and  towards  its  close  it  approaches 
with  some  hesitation  the  deductive  systems  of  the 
higher  university  stage.  If  a  verbal  definition 
of  the  content  is  required,  then  that  given  by 
Professor  J.  W.  A.  Young  ^  may  be  adopted  for 
practical  use  : — 

''  *In  all  domains  of  mathematics  those  parts 
are  to  be  called  elementary  which  can  be 
understood  by  a  pupil  of  average  ability  with- 
out long  continued  special  study.'  Obviously 
school  mathematics  implies  suitable  methods  of 
approach,  namely,  those  which  lead  immature 
and  growing  minds  towards  an  understanding 
of  the  parts  of  the  subject  matter  included  in 
the  course." 

Although  the  definition  just  given  is  very  use- 
ful, especially  when  the  trammels  of  long-estab- 
lished custom  press  most  severely,  yet  it  hardly 
emphasises  sufficiently  those  aspects  of  mathe- 
matics which  seem  important,  if  not  essential,  to 
the  question  under  consideration,  namely,  the 
possibilities  of  school  mathematics  especially  in 
relation  to  the  correlation  with  school  science. 
The  method  of  correlation  which  will  be  de- 
scribed later  has  developed  from  certain  views 
concerning  the  nature  of  science  and  of  scientific 
method ;  and  although  it  is  beyond  the  scope  of 
this  article  to  attempt  a  full  description  of  these 

^  Professor  Young,  Bull.  Am.  Math.  Soc,  XII,  349,  April,  1906. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  RELATION  TO  SCIENCE     95 

questions,  yet  it  seems  simplest  to  refer  to  several 
well-known  authorities,  whose  published  work 
has  had  influence  on  the  solution  adopted.  The 
late  Professor  George  Boole,  in  a  lecture  on  "The 
Claims  of  Science  in  Relation  to  Human  Nature," 
gave  the  following  description  of  the  general 
question  : — 

"  Science,  then,  we  may  regard  as  the  joint 
result  of  the  teachings  of  experience,  and  the 
desires  and  faculties  of  the  human  mind.  Its 
inlets  are  the  senses  ;  its  form  and  character  are 
the  result  of  comparison,  of  reflection,  of  reason, 
and  of  whatever  powers  we  possess,  whereby  to 
perceive  relations,  and  trace  through  its  succes- 
sive links  the  chain  of  cause  and  effect.  The  order 
of  its  progress  is  from  particular  facts  to  col- 
lective statements,  and  so  on  to  universal  laws. 
In  Nature  it  exhibits  to  us  a  system  of  law 
enforcing  obedience  ;  in  the  Mind  a  system  of 
law  claiming  obedience.  Over  the  one  pre- 
sides Necessity ;  over  the  other,  the  unforced 
obligations  of  Reason  and  the  Moral  Law. 
Such  I  conceive  to  be  the  true  conception  of 
science." 

For  a  formulation  of  the  particular  aspect  of 
science  which  concerns  us  now,  we  may  turn  to 
the  Grammar  of  Science,  by  Professor  Karl  Pear- 
son, where  we  find  these  passages  : — 

**  Scientific  concepts  are,  as  a  rule,  limits 
drawn  in  conception  to  processes  which  can  be 


96       BROAD    LINES   IN    SCIENCE  TEACHING 

Started  but  not  carried  to  a  conclusion  in  per- 
ception. The  historical  origin  of  the  concepts 
of  geometry  and  physics  can  thus  be  traced. 
Concepts  such  as  geometrical  surface,  atom, 
and  ether  are  not  asserted  by  science  to  have 
a  real  existence  in  or  behind  phenomena,  but 
are  valid  as  shorthand  methods  of  describing  the 
correlation  and  sequence  of  phenomena.  From 
this  standpoint  conceptual  space  and  time  can 
be  easily  appreciated,  and  the  danger  avoided 
of  projecting  their  ideal  infinities  and  eternities 
into  the  real  world  of  perceptions".^ 

"  The  progress  of  science  lies  in  the  con- 
tinual discovery  of  more  and  more  comprehen- 
sive formulae,  by  aid  of  which  we  can  classify 
the  relationships  and  sequences  of  more  and 
more  extensive  groups  of  phenomena.  The 
earlier  formulae  are  not  necessarily  wrong  ; 
they  are  replaced  by  others  which  in  briefer 
language  describe  more  facts.  .  .  .  They  are 
what  the  mathematician  would  term  *  first  ap- 
proximations.'" 

Further  on  in  his  book^  Professor  Pearson  tells 
us  that  the  validity  of  a  conceptual  mode  of 
classifying  and  describing  perceptual  change  de- 
pends *'upon  the  power  it  gives  us  of  briefly 
resuming  the  facts  of  perception  or  of  economising 
thought." 

This  leads  us  naturally  to  the  views  of  Professor 

^  Page  191  (second  edition).  *  Page  194. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  RELATION  TO  SCIENCE     97 

E.  Mach,  who  considers  that  "economy  of  com- 
munication and  apprehension  is  of  the  very 
essence  of  science";^  and  that  '* mathematics  may 
be  defined  as  the  economy  of  counting."^  More 
generally  that  '*  it  is  the  object  of  science  to 
replace,  or  save,  experiences,  by  the  reproduction 
and  anticipation  of  facts  in  thought.  Memory  is 
handier  than  experience,  and  often  answers  the 
same  purpose.  .  .  .  Science  is  communicated  by 
instruction,  in  order  that  one  man  may  profit  by 
the  experience  of  another.  Language,  the  instru- 
ment of  this  communication,  is  itself  an  economical 
contrivance."  So  far,  so  good.  But  although 
Professor  Mach  goes  on  to  contrast  to  a  certain 
extent  the  restricted  nature  of  national  languages 
with  the  universal  and  international  character  of 
numerals,  algebraic  signs,  chemical  symbols,  and 
other  written  languages  of  similar  kinds,  yet  in 
this  particular  passage  he  does  not  emphasise  suf- 
ficiently the  special  properties  of  notation.  Where 
national  language  enables  a  limited  group  of 
people  to  communicate  ideas  about  all  subjects  of 
interest,  an  adequate  notation  helps  all  men  to 
communicate  ideas  about  only  one  subject  of 
interest.  Where  national  language  is  of  use 
chiefly  in  the  expression  of  thought,  adequate 
notation  not  only  has  the  power  of  economising 
thought  by  brief  expression,  but  fulfils  its  most 
remarkable  function  only  as  an  instrument  for  the 

'  Mach,  Science  of  Mechanics,  p.  6.  ^^  Ibid.,  p.  486. 

H 


98      BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

discovery  and  development  of  thoughts  about  the 
subject-matter  for  which  it  has  been  specially 
devised. 

Undoubtedly  Babbage,  as  Professor  Mach  sug- 
gests, was  quite  familiar  with  these  ideas ;  he 
attempted  through  his  calculating  machines  to 
secure  by  material  structures  the  automatic  ac- 
curacy which  is  so  characteristic  of  good  notation, 
and  to  retain,  as  it  were,  sufficient  power  of 
adaptation  to  meet  any  contingencies.  Though  he 
failed  to  complete  his  machine,  he  was  certainly 
right  in  describing  notation^  as  a  **  language  of 
unrivalled  power,  enabling  the  mind  to  carry  on 
processes  of  deductive  reasoning  of  almost  un- 
limited length,"  with  an  automatic  power  of  self- 
correction. 

Considerations  such  as  the  foregoing  have  led 
us  to  adopt  certain  conclusions  in  regard  to  teach- 
ing mathematics  in  schools,  among  which  are  the 
following :  the  necessity  of  personal  experience 
to  awaken  thought ;  the  supreme  power  of  an 
adequate  notation  for  the  expression  and  develop- 
ment of  thought ;  and  the  gradual  advance 
towards  perfection,  which  implies  the  repro- 
duction in  some  way  in  the  class-room  of  the 
kind  of  racial  experience  which  at  various  times 
has  stimulated  the  great  original  discoveries 
recorded  in  the  history  of  science. 

^  C.  Babbage,  in  the  Edinburgh  Encyclopedia  (1813-30),  art. 
Notation. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  RELATION  TO  SCIENCE     99 

Let  it  be  admitted  that  such  conclusions  were 
reached  only  after  much  thinking  ;  and  that  this 
thinking  was  necessitated  by  a  certain  failure, 
experienced  during  some  years  of  teaching 
physical  science,  to  find  in  the  text-books  and 
practices  in  ordinary  use  twelve  years  ago  either 
sufficient  stimulus  to  awaken  thought  or  any 
factor  which  promised  to  develop  real  power  of 
mind  in  the  average  pupil.  As  the  result  of  such 
experience,  and  by  some  readjustment  of  duties, 
a  very  serious  attempt  was  made  to  reproduce  in 
an  elementary  way,  suited  to  the  capacities  of 
young  pupils,  the  original  mathematical  work  of 
the  times  of  Fermat  and  Descartes,  which  led, 
through  the  investigations  of  Wallis  and  Barrow, 
to  the  great  discoveries  of  Newton,  Leibnitz,  and 
their  successors  in  the  Differential  and  Integral 
Calculus. 

The  original  basis  of  these  discoveries  was 
the  synthesis  of  algebra  and  geometry  by 
Descartes  and  others ;  and  the  possibility  of 
applying  such  work  to  elementary  teaching 
seemed  to  lie  in  the  complete  synthesis  of  arith- 
metic with  algebra  and  geometry.  Fortunately 
at  this  time  (1898)  Professor  Chrystal  published 
his  Introduction  to  Algebra,  and  so  introduced 
into  elementary  mathematics  those  graphical 
methods  so  necessary  to  sound  mathematical 
progress. 

After   developing   the    course   of  algebra   for 


loo     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

some  years  on  his  lines,   full  confirmation  was 
obtained  of  his  statement^  that 

'*  By  the  constant  exercise  of  graph  tracing 
the  beginner  acquires  through  his  fingers  three 
fundamental  notions,  viz.  the  idea  of  a  Con- 
tinuously Varying  Function,  the  Conception  of 
a  Limit,  and  the  method  of  Successive  Approxi- 
mation." 

Some  additional  features  of  the  method  of  teach- 
ing adopted  seem  to  be  worth  specific  mention  : 
firstly,  the  Froebelian  principle  of  **  learning  by 
doing"  was,  we  think,  much  emphasised  by 
actual  practice ;  secondly,  our  method  of  class- 
work  removed  all  just  grounds  in  this  instance 
for  the  complaint  made  against  the  teaching  of 
graphical  algebra — that  tedious  and  unfruitful 
calculations  are  necessarily  involved,  for  each 
member  of  the  class  was  required  to  calculate 
one  or  more  values  of  the  function  for  different 
values  of  the  variable.  These  values  were  then 
written  up  on  the  blackboard  and  were  thus 
available  for  every  one  when  plotting  the  graph. 
In  such  ways  there  was  much  co-operation  for 
the  purpose  of  saving  tedious  labour ;  but  that 
sufficient  emulation  remained  among  the  indi- 
vidual members  of  the  class  seemed  to  be 
proved    by   frequent    little   private    competitions 

^  Chrystal,  Introduction  to  Algebra^  1898.  Preface,  p.  x. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  RELATION  TO  SCIENCE    loi 

for    calculating    any    extra    values    required    for 
the  graph. 

The  first  stage  of  the  course  was  directed 
towards  educating  the  power  of  mathematical  in- 
tuition. No  formal  proofs  were  attempted.  For 
instance,  the  correspondence  between  linear  func- 
tions and  straight  lines  was  accepted  as  obvious. 
But  although  it  seemed  very  advisable  to  base  the 
course  on  facts  sufficiently  obvious  to  be  ad- 
mitted without  question  (in  logic  this  is  equiva- 
lent to  taking  theorems  as  axioms),  it  seemed 
also  necessary  for  future  progress  to  introduce 
technical  names  as  the  occasions  arise,  after  the 
proper  notions  had  been  grasped. — In  this  respect 
the  graphical  method  has  marked  superiority. 
Words  like  coefficient,  constant,  index,  degree, 
etc.,  are  difficult  to  explain  with  interest  sufficent 
for  comprehension,  but  they  have  become  almost 
self-explanatory  after  visual  presentation  through 
graphs. — The  course  worked  through  commenced 
with  linear  functions,  varying  in  coefficients  and 
in  constants.  Next  an  advance  was  made  to 
simple  functions  of  the  second  and  perhaps  of 
the  third  degree.  After  this  the  introduction  of 
fractional  functions  led  to  the  notion  of  infinity, 
and  sometimes  to  discussions  on  discontinuity. 
But  this  side  of  the  work  has  developed  so 
much  recently  that  perhaps  enough  has  been 
said  about  it. 

Here  it  seems  convenient  to  describe  in  some 


I02     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

detail  an  experiment  carried  out  at  Bedales 
School,  in  the  correlation  of  school  science  and 
mathematics ;  an  experiment  which  lasted  suffi- 
ciently long  to  show  interesting  results. 

The  physical-science  classes  were  organised  to 
supply  first-hand  experience  of  a  kind  suitable  for 
mathematical  treatment.  The  various  experi- 
ments were  quantitative  in  nature ;  the  results 
were  recorded  and  then  plotted  on  squared  paper. 
The  points  thus  obtained  were  connected  in  the 
ordinary  way  by  straight  lines  or  curves,  according 
to  the  experiment  attempted,  though  at  times  a 
certain  amount  of  smoothing  was  required  to  get 
a  tractable  result.  From  these  remarks  it  is 
obvious  that  in  general  the  problems  presented 
for  mathematical  solution  were  of  an  inverse 
character — given  a  graph,  it  was  required  to  find 
the  corresponding  algebraical  function. 

Pupils  in  the  course  of  their  work  met  with 
some  or  all  of  the  following  graphs.  These  were 
obtained  by  plotting  the  numerical  results  derived 
from  suitable  experiments,  which  are  implied  by 
the  brief  references  under  each  heading. 

1.  Linear  : — 

Temperature  F — C. 

Force  of  Friction — Pressure  (planes  and  pulleys). 

2.  Parabolic : — 

Path  of  Projectile. 

Distance — Time  (in  the  case  of  inclined  plane 

and  free  fall). 
Time-period  of  pendulum — Length. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  RELATION  TO  SCIENCE    103 

3.  Inverse  First  Power  (or  Hyperbolic) : — 

Pressure  of  gas — Volume  (Boyle's  Law). 
Position  of  image — Position  of  object  (in  lenses 
and  mirrors). 

4.  Inverse  Squares  : — 

Light  intensity — Distance  from  source. 
Magnetic  intensity  due  to  a  pole — Distance. 

5.  Cubic  : — 

Depression  of  a  bent  beam — Length. 

6.  Inverse  Cubic  : — 

Intensity  of  field  due  to  short  magnet — Distance. 

7.  Exponential : — 

Excess  temperature  of  body  cooling  in  vacuo — 
Time. 

The  list  just  given  is  not  intended  to  be  com- 
plete, especially  on  the  experimental  side  ;  but 
rather  to  indicate  the  range  of  w^ork  presented  for 
mathematical  consideration.  And  it  is  perhaps 
advisable  here  to  state  that  no  sharply  defined 
scheme  of  correlation  wsls  ever  drawn  up  ;  but 
much  faith  v^as  placed  in  the  mutual  help  afforded 
by  the  work  on  both  sides  ;  some  pupils  responded 
more  readily  to  the  experimental  work,  others  to 
the  mathematical  discussions ;  but  all  received 
much  benefit  from  the  inevitable  alternation  of 
mental  attitude.  A  definite  illustration  of  this 
point  has  been  frequently  provided  by  work  done 
with  two  thermometers,  one  Fahrenheit,  the  other 
Centigrade  ;  pupils  who  have  found  the  beginning 
of  graphical  algebra  without  much  meaning  have 
been  encouraged  to  make  further  and  successful 


I04    BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

attempts  to  overcome  the  initial  difficulties 
through  plotting  the  graph  from  their  own  data. 

Concurrently  with  the  earlier  part  of  the  prac- 
tical physics  the  second  stage  of  the  graphical 
course  of  mathematics  was  under  development. 
The  first  step  here  was  to  lead  up  by  suitable 
illustrations  to  the  notion  of  a  limit.  The  next 
step  taken  was  to  apply  the  method  of  limits 
with  suitable  notation  to  the  calculation  of 
tangents  to  the  simplest  curves.  Beyond  the 
notion  of  a  limit,  only  easy  algebra  is  required  for 
this  purpose.  Then  many  of  the  curves  already 
drawn  during  the  first  stage  were  treated  in  a 
similar  way,  and  the  old  work  and  note-books  put 
to  further  valuable  use. 

After  this  introductory  course  of  limits,  the 
third  stage  was  commenced  by  a  recapitulation  of 
the  work  in  the  notation  of  the  differential  calculus. 
This  notation  is  more  powerful  and  enables  the 
course  of  tangent  drawing  to  be  extended  with 
comparative  ease.  The  introduction  of  integration 
as  the  operation  inverse  to  differentiation  presented 
little  difficulty  to  classes  taught  from  the  algebra 
of  Professor  Chrystal ;  but  the  discussion  of  the 
relation  between  integration  and  the  areas  of 
plane  curves  was  always  treated  as  the  occasion 
for  attempting  formal  proofs  applicable  to  special 
cases.  This  part  of  the  course  involved  a  return 
back  to  algebra  and  the  method  of  limits.  The 
final  problem  of  the  third  stage  was  the  calcu- 


MATHEMATICS  IN  RELATION  TO  SCIENCE    105 

lation  of  the  function  of  the  second  degree  to  a 
curve  determined  by  a  given  table  of  values 
suitably  chosen,  an  inverse  problem  presented  in 
the  course  of  practical  physics  already  mentioned. 

The  fourth  and  last  stage  of  our  special  course 
introduced  the  differentiation  of  the  circular 
functions,  both  direct  and  inverse,  and  ended  with 
the  calculation  of  tt  to  several  decimal  places,  by 
means  of  Gregory's  series  obtained  by  suitable 
integration.  The  exponential  functions  were 
introduced  graphically  to  the  class  as  a  whole ; 
but  detailed  analysis  was  reserved  until  specially 
required. 

Such  work  lasting  through  some  five  or  six 
years  has  proved  conclusively  that  the  average 
pupils  of  school  age,  both  boys  and  girls,  can 
understand  and  appreciate  the  methods  of  elemen- 
tary calculus,  provided  they  are  working  concur- 
rently at  that  kind  of  physical  science  which 
presents  problems  for  solution  requiring  the  cal- 
culus. In  more  recent  years  the  whole  work  of 
the  school  has  undergone  development  and  differ- 
entiation, which  has  interfered,  temporarily  let  us 
hope,  with  the  further  progress  of  our  experiment 
in  correlation.  But  the  later  results,  though 
apparently  adverse,  have  not  been  without  some 
value  ;  it  has  been  found  that  pupils  taking  mainly 
biological  science,  or  perhaps  devoting  much  time 
and  energy  to  music,  cannot  appreciate  the  higher 
notations    of  mathematics   through    methods    of 


io6     BROAD   LINES   IN    SCIENCE  TEACHING 

teaching  quite  intelligible  to  pupils  of  about  the 
same  age  who  are  studying  physical  science. 

Such  experience  is  a  useful  reminder  that,  after 
all  the  attempts  to  arrange  the  various  mathema- 
tical subjects  in  a  perfect  logical  order,  there  is  a 
very  human  element  in  teaching  which  requires 
more  consideration  from  responsible  authorities. 
The  difficulty  of  teaching  pupils  in  the  same  class, 
when  some  have  received  good  but  others 
indifferent  training  in  early  years,  is  real  evidence 
of  the  necessity  of  attending  to  a  wise  psychology. 
Without  wishing  to  question  that  the  deductive  is 
the  proper  method  in  pure  mathematics  for  the 
developed  mind,  it  seems  necessary  to  point  out 
that  in  school  teaching  the  inductive  process  of  the 
mind  requires  the  most  definite  care ;  for  the 
inductive  process  is  a  vital  factor  in  promoting 
healthy  and  vigorous  growth  of  mind  and  brain 
during  the  early  years  of  youth,  and  in  mathe- 
matics especially  this  vital  process  is  in  constant 
danger  of  suffering  real  and  perhaps  permanent 
harm  from  a  system  of  examinations  admitted  by 
many  to  be  too  dominant  in  the  regulation  of 
educational  affairs. 

We  may  admit  that  the  mind  requires  training 
in  order  to  reason  correctly,  but  we  cannot  admit 
that  the  method  of  this  training  in  schools  must 
be  determined  by  any  system  of  logical  deduc- 
tion from  abstract  definitions  and  axioms,  how- 
ever suitable  to  university  work.     It  is  certainly 


MATHEMATICS  IN  RELATION  TO  SCIENCE    107 

good  psychology  not  to  ask  beginners  to  prove 
the  obvious ;  and  we  may  hope  that  at  no 
far  distant  future  many  will  be  found  to  agree 
with  Professor  Cajori,  who  has  stated  that  the 
line  of  progress  is  to  take  much  more  for  granted 
as  evident  to  the  eye  than  present  customs  per- 
mit, but  to  do  this  openly  with  no  attempt  at 
deductive  proof.  Present  conditions  are  not 
favourable  to  mutual  correlation ;  for  instance, 
the  basis  of  map-drawing  in  geography  and  in 
simple  surveying  is  the  assumed  similarity  of 
equiangular  triangles,  but  in  geometry  lessons 
this  essential  truth  may  not  be  assumed  and  is 
not  attained  until  after  years  of  work.  It  is 
probable  that  from  such  contradictions  much  of 
the  general  distaste  for  mathematics  arises,  and 
that  in  their  removal  lies  the  possibility  of  a 
general  co-ordination  of  school  science  and 
mathematics,  which  would  not  only  assist  an 
economical  distribution  of  effort,  but  also  go  far 
to  promote  a  habit  of  scientific  thought  in  the 
educated  public. 


IX 


CO-ORDINATION  OF  PHYSICS  TEACHING 
IN  SCHOOL  AND   COLLEGE 

WITH   SPECIAL   REFERENCE    TO   ELECTRICITY 
AND    MAGNETISM 

By  ALFRED  W.  PORTER,  B.Sc. 


f      ■    ^  H  E  living  material  with  which  a  college 
I  lecturer  begins  his  work  is  the  finished 

J  product  of  a  school  career.  This  fact 
alone  would  justify  one  whose  teaching 
experience  is  confined  to  university  work  in  con- 
sidering the  question  of  teaching  in  schools. 
Besides  this,  at  the  present  day,  there  is  con- 
siderable overlapping  in  the  two  grades  of  study. 
Schools  advance  in  independence  of  college 
curricula  except  in  so  far  as  they  are  regulated 
by  examinational  needs.  There  is  no  co-ordina- 
tion between  the  two ;  there  is  not  even 
uniformity  in  the  schools  themselves. 

This  system  (or  lack  of  system)  must  be  con- 
trasted with  that  in  Germany,  where  the  schools 
are  governed  by  the  State  and  a  lad's  college 
career  is  a  truer  sequence  of  his  school  training. 
We  may  reasonably  hope  that  the  freer  system 

1 08 


CO-ORDINATION   OF   PHYSICS   TEACHING      109 

with    us   will    ultimately    lead    (largely    by    the 
method    of    trial    and   error)   to   a   much    more 
satisfactory  scheme  of  education  than  one  which 
was  made  rigid  in  the  beginning.     But  while  the 
evolution  of  the  perfect  system  proceeds,  much 
difficulty  is  experienced  (arising  from  the  lack  of 
uniformity)  in  connection  with  the  transition  from 
the  sphere  of  school  to  that  of   college.     The 
question  as  to  where  a  school  course  should  end 
and  the  college  course  begin  is  specially  compli- 
cated in  the  case  of  the  study  of  science  in  con- 
sequence of  the  very  precarious  foothold  which 
science  has  yet  secured  in  the  majority  of  schools. 
The  ultimate  answer  to  this  question  will  prob- 
ably be  very  different  from    the   one   which    is 
suited  to  present  conditions.     As  the  scientific 
equipment  of  school  laboratories  increases,  and 
the  time  which  can  be  devoted  there  to  science 
is  also  increased,  it  may  become  possible  for  much 
of  the  elementary  work  to  be  transferred  from 
college  to  school.     Such  a  transference  would, 
of  course,  require  a  readjustment  of  the  existing 
higher  curricula  of  college.    The  only  alternative 
to  this  is  that,  as  the  school  teaching  becomes 
more  efficient,  the  average  age  of  leaving  school 
should  diminish.     This  alternative  is  one  which 
ought  not  to  be  lost  sight  of.     The  trend  of  de- 
velopment seems  to  be  against  it ;  but  in  certain 
quarters  it  would  be  looked  on  with  favour.     For 
example,  Professor  Armstrong  in  his  contribution 


no     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

to  the  Reports  of  the  Mosely  Educational  Com- 
mission (1903)/  after  intimating  that  the  entire 
system  of  education  seems  to  require  reconstruc- 
tion from  bottom  to  top,  asserts  "the  greater  part 
of  the  work  which  is  now  done — far  too  late — at 
college  might  then  be  done  at  school ;  or  still 
better,  college  might  be  entered  with  advantage 
at  sixteen."  On  the  other  hand,  objections  con- 
nected with  the  formation  of  character  can  no 
doubt  be  urged  against  early  school  leaving — 
objections  which  could  be  removed  only  if  in  the 
simultaneous  reorganisation  of  the  college  career 
the  school  influences  were  successfully  replaced. 
The  ultimate  selection  between  these  alterna- 
tives must  turn  upon  the  decision  as  to  the  range 
of  a  subject  which  can  best  be  taught  in  the 
atmosphere  of  school. 

Under  existing  conditions  I  am  convinced 
that  many  schools  attempt  far  more  than  their 
exiguous  equipment  warrants.  The  mischief 
done  is  greatest  when  the  training  is  merely  to 
enable  a  man  to  pass  an  examination  and  the 
subject  is  one  which  he  will  not  be  required  to 
take  to  a  further  stage  at  college.  To  give  a 
single  example :  this  remark  applies  to  any 
school  preparing  for  the  First  Medical  Examina- 
tion of  London  University.  No  physics  is  re- 
quired from  the  embryo  **  medical"  except  in 
preparation  for  this  preliminary  examination.  Is 
^  Page  20. 


CO-ORDINATION   OF   PHYSICS   TEACHING      iii 

it  right  that  this  training  should  be  allowed  to  be 
given  under  the  meagre  and  restricted  conditions 
which  are  possible  in  a  school  ?  There  never 
was  a  time  when  a  knowledge  of  physics  was  so 
necessary  to  a  medical  man  as  it  is  to-day  ;  and 
it  should  be  imparted  under  the  most  generous 
conditions.  Unfortunately  the  successes  which 
can  be  obtained  at  examinations  are  tending  to 
encourage  the  opinion  that  the  school  training  in 
physics  is  quite  sufficient.  The  lads  will  only 
realise  later  the  insufficiency  of  their  training  for 
the  career  that  is  before  them. 

When  a  man  takes  the  subject  to  a  further 
stage  at  college  the  wrong  done  by  an  extended 
though  narrow  school  course  is  not  so  serious 
because,  to  some  extent,  it  is  capable  of  subse- 
quent rectification.  But  many  men  have  their 
careers  spoilt  merely  owing  to  insufficient  ground- 
ing. I  say  without  hesitation  that  such  men 
would  have  done  better  if  they  had  left  school 
earlier. 

These  considerations  apply  to  fairly  specialised 
teaching  such  as  till  recently  has  been  almost 
exclusively  given  at  college.  I  will  now  pass  on 
to  the  consideration  of  the  more  elementary  work; 
and  in  order  to  keep  within  the  space  allotted  to 
me,  I  will  restrict  the  question  to  the  teaching  of 
elementary  electricity  and  magnetism. 

Judging  from  the  results  which  come  under 
our  observation  many  of  us  are  doubtful  whether 


112     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

electricity  is  a  subject  suitable  to  be  taught  for- 
mally in  a  pre-collegiate  period  under  existing 
conditions.  By  the  adverb  "formally"  I  am 
distinguishing   between   what   aims   at   being 

complete  course  up  to  a  definite  standard  and  i 

the  more  informal  introduction  to  the  subject  to  \ 
which  I  shall  refer  later. 

One  source  of  difficulty  is  that  which  we  feel 

even  when   teaching   it   in  the   university :    the  i 

difficulty  which  arises  from  the  gross  ignorance  j 

exhibited  by  the  average  boy  of  the  necessary  j 

mathematics — simple  though  it  is.     Contrast  the  j 

ideal  boy  of  Professor  Perry  (whom  he  describes  ■ 

in  the  perfect  tense)  ^ — the  boy  of  the  age  of  I 

fourteen  **  who  has  learnt  trigonometry,"  who  can  ! 
also  *' differentiate  and  integrate  xf"'' — with  the 

real  boy  of  sixteen  or  seventeen  who  has  not  ; 

done  so  and  who  does  not  know  what  differentia-  \ 

tion  means.  \ 

Until  this  state  of  things  is  remedied  the  ways  ■ 

of  science  will  indeed  be  hard.     Cannot  mathe-  j 

maticians,    however,    see   their   way  to   develop  j 

their  subject   along   lines   more   suitable   to   its  j 

applications  without  sacrificing  the  logical  order  i 

which  is  necessarily  so  dear  to  them  ?^     Unless  \ 

this  can  be  done  a  twofold  development  must  i 

I 

^  Discussion  at  Johannesburg  on  the  Teaching  of  Elementary  \ 

Mechanics^  1905,  p.  5.     Macmillan  and  Co.,  1906.  1 

2  This  question  is   more  fully  considered  in   Mr.  Garstang's  ; 

paper. — Ed.  \ 

\ 


CO-ORDINATION   OF  PHYSICS   TEACHING      113 

eventually  replace  the  existing  one.  Alongside  the 
logical  and  abstract  treatment  in  the  mathematical 
department — a  treatment  so  necessary  for  all  who 
have  the  mathematical  faculty  and  who  will 
ultimately  become  professed  mathematicians,  so 
educational  also  for  those  who  will  not — will  pro- 
ceed a  practical  treatment  on  lines  suitable  for 
immediate  application.  Both  may  be  given  by 
the  same  teacher  if  he  possess  the  necessary 
qualifications ;  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  the 
latter  will  be  much  better  given  by  the  teacher  of 
physics  because  he  is  more  alive  to  the  possible 
applications.  Both  courses  should  be  taken  by 
both  kinds  of  pupil.  We  are  decidedly  against 
restricting  a  boy  to  the  practical  side  because 
he  is  going  to  be  an  engineer  ;  and  we  think  the 
mathematician  is  only  half  educated  who  has  not 
come  into  direct  contact  with  it.  There  is  much 
to  commend  this  twofold  system  in  preference  to 
a  half-hearted  acquiescence  of  the  mathematician 
in  the  demand  for  a  practical  treatment.  Of 
course,  much  can  be  done,  and  indeed  is  often 
done  already,  by  the  physics  lecturer  in  an  in- 
formal way  towards  this  end  ;  but  it  is  a  great 
deal  better  to  have  the  system  officially  recog- 
nised, and  not  to  render  oneself  liable  to  a  charge 
of  muddying  the  waters  of  pure  thought  supplied 
by  another  department. 

If  the  difficulty  in  respect  to  a  pure  mathe- 
matical equipment  is  removed,  there  remains  the 


114     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

difficulty  in  respect  to  the  insufficiency  of  a  know- 
ledge of  mechanics.  No  formal  course  on  elec- 
tricity should  ever  be  given  prior  to  an  intro- 
ductory course  in  mechanics ;  yet  this  is  often 
done.  The  subject  of  electricity  and  magnetism 
involves  almost  at  the  beginning  the  notion  of 
force,  for  we  measure  a  charge  of  electricity 
by  means  of  the  force  exerted.  How  can  the 
teaching  of  this  part  of  the  subject  be  anything 
but  cram  unless  accurate  mechanical  conceptions 
have  been  previously  imparted  ?  It  is  in  vain  to 
reply  that  use  may  be  made  of  the  pupil's  per- 
sonal experience  in  exerting  force,  and  that  this 
knowledge  will  be  temporarily  sufficient.  It  is 
mischievous  to  teach  that  force  is  measured 
mechanically  in  terms  of  our  sensations.  Let 
any  one  who  doubts  this  statement  turn  over  in 
his  own  mind  exactly  what  would  be  meant  by 
asserting  that  the  sensation  in  lifting  one  hundred 
pounds  is  double  that  in  lifting  fifty ;  and  par- 
ticularly let  him  ask  himself  further  whether  or 
not  the  assertion  is  true. 

So,  if  this  be  admitted,  care  should  be  taken 
to  ground  a  boy  first  in  mechanics.  If  he  has 
done  none,  the  formal  electrical  course  should  be 
postponed.  To  ensure  the  possibility  of  arrang- 
ing the  courses  accordingly,  the  mechanics  should 
be  taken  by  the  physics  lecturer.  Indeed,  it 
should  be  recognised  that  it  is  nothing  more  than 
the  most  fundamental  of  all  the  different  branches 


CO-ORDINATION   OF   PHYSICS    TEACHING      115 

of  physics.  It  should  be  taught  as  such  with 
proper  experimental  illustrations  and  suitable 
laboratory  work.  Unless  this  is  done  there  will 
always  be  a  sense  of  detachment  between  it  and 
the  other  branches  of  physics. 

It  may  appear  as  though  I  am  tending  to  dis- 
courage the  formal  teaching  of  electricity.  My 
aim,  however,  is  the  contrary ;  it  is  to  prevent  it 
being  badly  taught.  With  adequate  tuition  in 
mathematics  and  mechanics  as  a  preliminary,  the 
greater  part  of  the  difficulty  is  removed.  It  is 
in  making  use  of  terms  (such  as  force,  work,  etc.) 
which  are  only  half,  if  at  all,  understood  that 
disaster  arises.  As  soon  as  this  preliminary 
knowledge  is  acquired  the  way  is  open  for  per- 
fectly sound  elementary  courses  on  electrostatics, 
magnetism,  and  current  electricity.  They  should 
be  taken  in  this,  the  old-fashioned,  order.  It  is 
of  course  well  known  that  there  has  been  a  ten- 
dency to  discount  electrostatics  ;  this  has  been 
especially  the  case  in  technical  schools.  It  seems 
to  me  that  this  plan  has  been  bad  policy ;  for 
this  opinion  the  following  reasons  may  be  adduced, 
though  the  statement  of  these  reasons  for  remain- 
incr  old-fashioned  makes  a  rather  long;  diorression. 
It  is  useful  to  make  the  statement  because  doing 
so  brings  out  incidentally  the  main  character- 
istic of  the  recent  development  in  electrical 
theory.  Besides  the  fact  that  electrostatic  phe- 
nomena  have,    in    recent    years,   taken  a  much 


ii6     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

more  prominent  place  in  technics  owing  to  the 
use  of  high-tension  currents,  we  have  the  fact, 
much  more  important  from  the  philosophical 
standpoint,  that  modern  views  of  electricity  are 
based  upon  conceptions  first  met  with  in  electro- 
statics. 

In  order  to  indicate  the  nature  of  the  change 
it  must  be  mentioned  that  the  trend  of  Maxwells 
teaching,  and  more  particularly  of  the  experiments 
of  Hertz  on  electromagnetic  waves,  was  to  re- 
move the  necessity  of  thinking  about  electricity 
as  a  separate  entity.  The  whole  attention  was 
concentrated  upon  stresses  in  the  intervening 
medium  instead  of  on  forces  between  electric 
charges  acting  according  to  the  inverse  square 
law.  It  seemed  unnecessary  to  postulate  an 
electric  fluid,  and  scorn  was  showered  upon  the 
newspaper  writer  who  alone  failed  to  realise  his 
archaisms  in  describing  the  phenomenon  of  thun- 
derstorms. But  a  reaction  has  come,  and  it  is 
again  fashionable  to  speak  of  an  electric  fluid. 
Not  that  we  are  back  in  the  pre-Faradaic  period  ; 
the  fluid  has  properties  which  were  undreamed  of 
then.  It  is  divided  like  matter  into  atoms,  a 
fact  of  which  the  laws  of  electrolysis  may  be 
taken  as  the  most  elementary  indication.  In- 
deed, the  proportionality  of  electro-chemical  to 
chemical  equivalents  led  Maxwell  himself,  a  long 
time  ago,  to  speak  of  a  ''molecule  of  electricity"; 
but  then  he  used  this  phrase  simply  to  indicate 


CO-ORDINATION   OF   PHYSICS    TEACHING      117 

a  "provisional  hypothesis,"  to  be  discarded  as 
knowledge  increased.  We  cannot  go  into  details 
here ;  the  point  is  that  the  electric  charge  is  once 
more  a  fundamental  conception  :  highest  philoso- 
phy and  rudimentary  teaching  are  brought  into 
closer  harmony  than  before,  for  it  is  as  easy  to  talk 
about  particles  of  electricity  as  about  particles  of 
matter ;  and  there  is  everything  in  favour  of 
beginning  with  electrostatics,  the  branch  in  which 
the  most  simple  properties  of  charges  are 
studied. 

There  is  no  room  here  to  outline  what  a  satis- 
factory course  should  consist  of;  the  place  for 
that  is  a  textbook  and  not  a  page  in  an  essay. 
Examination  syllabuses  must  unfortunately  be 
taken,  in  many  cases,  as  the  main  guide.  These, 
let  it  be  admitted,  are  usually  loaded  with 
ancient  material  which  some  day  must  be  dis- 
carded to  give  place  to  new.  But  in  any  school 
which  undertakes  the  formal  course  (which  we 
would  prefer  to  be  given  at  college,  as  we  have 
said)  new  matter  must  be  introduced,  whether  it 
is  in  a  university  syllabus  or  not.  Hertzian 
waves,  electrons.  X-rays,  radioactivity :  these  sub- 
jects must  certainly  not  be  ignored. 

Such  a  course  will  not  be  given  to  every  boy 
even  in  the  ideal  school  of  the  future.  But  there 
is  a  kind  of  tuition  in  physics  which  every  one 
should  have,  and  which  I  alluded  to  above  as  an 
"informal    introduction."      Others    have    written 


-A  \^ 

THH 


f  07    THH  4 

f  UNIVERSITY    1 


ii8     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

about  allowing  boys  to  play  with  magnets  and 
cells.  Let  them  **  make  glass-rubbed  electric 
machines  and  Leyden  jars  out  of  bottles  bought 
cheaply  from  grocers."  Never  mind  whether  or 
not  you  can  reduce  these  things  to  mathematics ; 
perhaps  do  not  even  try  to  do  so  at  this  early 
stage.  The  interest  that  can  be  aroused  by  this 
scientific  play,  the  familiarity  with  things  that  is 
gained,  are  all  to  the  good  in  connection  with 
later  teaching. 

The  work  should  not  be  really  desultory. 
Professor  Perry  encourages  the  imitation  of 
Mr.  Barlow  in  Sandford  and  Merton,  "  who 
keeps  the  boys  on  any  one  subject  just  as 
long  as  they  are  interested."  My  ideal  teacher 
of  this  stage  of  work  is  a  somewhat  different 
man ;  he  is  one  who  keeps  a  boy  interested 
in  a  subject  as  long  as  he  keeps  him  at  it. 
Moreover,  he  must  keep  the  boy  at  it  past 
the  moment  when  effort  is  needed  on  the  part 
of  the  boy;  otherwise,  though  a  fact  may  be 
learned,  training  has  not  begun.  Some  things  the 
pupil  may  be  put  to  find  out  for  himself,  but 
heuristics  is  a  method  too  tardy  in  results  to  be 
exclusively  employed.  Carry  it  to  its  logical  ex- 
treme (which,  of  course,  no  one  does),  and  the 
development  of  the  boy  would  become  as  slow  as 
the  development  of  the  race.  Do  not,  on  the 
other  hand,  put  him  off  with  a  mere  dogmatic 
statement ;   explain   how  a   thing   comes    to   be 


CO-ORDINATION   OF   PHYSICS    TEACHING      119 

known,  and  let  him  test  it  whenever  possible. 
The  dragon  which  the  '' heuristikos "  assails  is 
the  dragon  of  the  old  days,  when  no  experi- 
mental work  at  all  was  taught ;  he  is  mistaken  in 
thinking  that  his  enemy  necessarily  may  be  found 
lurking  wherever  direct  instruction  is  given.  A 
child  must  be  told  far  more  than  he  could  pos- 
sibly find  out  for  himself;  but  the  spirit  of  anti- 
dogmatism  should  pervade  the  telling  from  the 
beginning  to  the  end. 

These  considerations  lead  naturally  to  the 
question  of  the  education  of  the  exceptional  case. 
In  some  schools  there  is  a  type  of  scholar  who 
takes  easily  to  working  some  one  line ;  he  is  a 
born  investigator  who  goes  to  enormous  pains 
and  shows  great  ability  in  pursuing  work  which 
is  of  research  type,  even  though  the  things  dis- 
covered may  be  really  old  :  experiments  in  electric 
waves,  concentration  of  the  radioactive  elements 
in  a  uranium  ore,  and  the  like.  This  work  takes 
time,  and  can  be  done  only  to  the  exclusion  of 
other  work.  What  shall  be  said  of  school  work 
of  this  kind  which  specialises  to  an  extreme  in 
one  direction  to  the  detriment  of  others  ?  The 
first  thing  to  say  is  that  there  are  some  youths 
who  are  best  left  alone  with  their  teacher ; 
ordinary  rules  that  are  laid  down  for  general 
guidance  do  not  apply  to  them.  They  are  not 
the  majority  ;  both  they  and  also  probably  their 
teachers  are  exceptional.     It  is  difficult  to  draw 


I20     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

inferences  from  the  development  of  these  men 
as  to  the  success  of  the  mode  in  which  they  are 
taught,  because  they  are  the  sort  that  succeed  in 
spite  of  circumstances.  That  some  work  of  the 
above  kind  should  be  encouraged  is  one  of  my 
articles  of  faith ;  but  the  greatest  care  should  be 
taken  that  it  does  not  exclude  the  vastly  important 
general  grounding  without  which  the  boy,  and 
afterwards  the  man,  will  be  continually  hampered. 
By  all  means  let  arrangements  be  sufficiently 
elastic  that  the  union  between  a  particular  teacher 
and  pupil  may  be  extended  beyond  the  usual 
period.  It  is  better  that  this  should  be  rather 
than  the  pupil  should  be  transferred  to  what  may 
prove  to  be  the  more  uncongenial  elementary 
classes  of  a  university  college.  But  observation 
of  many  who  have  been  thus  taught  has  impressed 
me  with  the  belief  that  the  instances  are  ex- 
ceedingly rare  in  which  this  mode  of  teaching 
can  profitably  replace  one  which  is  preceded  by 
teaching  of  a  more  formal  and  general  character. 
Specialisation,  even  in  the  university,  is  being 
encouraged  at  too  early  a  stage.  With  the  **one 
subject "  honours  in  London  University  our  physi- 
cal students  are  learning  no  chemistry  or  else  no 
mathematics ;  they  are  not  even  compelled  to 
take  applied  mathematics ;  our  chemists  need  not 
even  take  physics.  The  loss  of  power  that  this 
implies  can  only  be  gauged  when  it  is  recalled 
that  there  is  no  hard  and  fast  line  drawn  in  nature 


CO-ORDINATION   OF  PHYSICS    TEACHING      121 

corresponding  to  our  artificial  distinctions  ;  a  full 
knowledge  of  one  phenomenon  implies  a  know- 
ledge of  all. 

If  this  objection  can  be  validly  urged  against 
too  early  specialisation  at  college,  much  more  can 
it  be  urofed  ao^ainst  the  same  fault  at  school. 
There  is  no  identity  between  encouraging  re- 
search habits  of  thought  and  experimentation  and 
narrowing  a  boy  down  into  a  single  groove. 


X 

GEOGRAPHY 

By  J.  H.  N.  STEPHENSON,  M.A. 

"Step  by  step  the  conviction  dawns  upon  the  learner  that,  to 
attain  to  even  an  elementary  conception  of  what  goes  on  in  his 
parish,  he  must  know  something  about  the  universe." 

T.  H.  Huxley. 

IT  is  in  some  respects  a  misfortune  that  the 
geography  of  our  childhood  was  practically 
dead  before  that  general  overhauling  of  our 
educational  system  began  which  has  been 
so  marked  a  feature  of  the  past  decade.  But 
the  lists  of  capes  and  bays,  the  marshalled 
array  of  chief  towns  and  their  populations,  how- 
ever useful  in  themselves,  had  long  been  felt  to 
be  sterile  and  uneducational,  in  that  no  one 
group  of  facts  bore  any  relation  to  another,  and 
no  mental  faculty  other  than  memory  was  brought 
into  play ;  nor  were  even  the  bare  facts  them- 
selves impressed  at  all  in  proportion  to  their 
intrinsic  importance.  Hence,  in  secondary  schools 
at  least,  the  subject  has  long  been  thrust  into  the 
background,  if  not  entirely  abandoned.  The  re- 
former has  therefore  not  merely — as  in  the  case 

122 


GEOGRAPHY  123 

of  Other  subjects — to  point  out  better  methods 
and  win  acceptance  for  them  ;  he  is  obliged  first 
to  convince  that  the  subject  is  worth  considering 
at  all. 

It  is  not  the  main  purpose  of  this  article  to 
examine  or  vindicate  the  importance  of  geo- 
graphy as  a  subject  of  study,  but  since  this  ques- 
tion vitally  affects  its  relation  to  science  teaching, 
it  may  not  be  amiss  to  point  out  that  the  claims 
being  now  more  and  more  strongly  urged  on  its 
behalf  are  not  altogether  new.  Arnold  saw  in 
it  the  meeting  -  point  of  history  and  natural 
science,  and  J.  R.  Green  spoke  of  it  as  a  study 
"which  must  occupy  a  foremost  place  in  any 
rational  system  of  primary  education,"  and  again 
as  **the  natural  starting-point  for  all  subjects  of 
later  training."^ 

1  would  call  special  attention  to  the  last  quota- 
tion, because  it  is  as  the  starting-point  of  at 
any  rate  most  subjects  of  later  training  that  I 
believe  Geography  must  be  accepted,  if  at  all.^ 
The  ever-widening  circle  of  human  knowledge 
makes  it  increasingly  difficult  to  reach  the  cir- 
cumference at  any  one  point,  to  do  so  at  more 
than  one,  well-nigh  impossible ;  and  in  order  to 

'  I  am  indebted  for  these  quotations  to  the  Rev.  F.  R.  Burrows, 
Geographical  Gleanings. 

2  In  the  preparatory-school  stage ;  later,  when  teaching  is 
carried  on  by  a  larger  staff,  there  may  be  a  continuation  of 
geography  teaching  for  its  own  sake  side  by  side  with  other 
branches  of  science. 


124     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

adapt  Itself  to  the  changed  conditions,  our  educa- 
tion must  aim  less  and  less  at  pursuing  a  number 
of  arbitrarily  chosen  subjects  and  more  and  more 
at  establishing  a  thorough  grasp  of  fundamental 
principles,  and  forming  a  habit  of  mind  capable 
of  applying  these  principles  in  any  direction  that 
the  needs  of  special  work  subsequently  may 
demand.  The  same  tendency  is  observable 
in  the  modern  treatment  of  mathematics  and 
also  of  history.  Paradoxical  as  it  may  seem, 
increased  specialisation  in  later  life  means  greater 
concentration  in  early  education  ;  to  illustrate  by 
a  metaphor,  if  fresh  storeys  are  added  to  the 
building,  the  foundations  must  be  strengthened. 
And  surely  no  subject  is  better  fitted  for  supply- 
ing this  foundation  than  geography  rationally 
studied,  training,  as  it  should,  the  observation 
and  reasoning  power  as  well  as  the  faculties  of 
memory  and  imagination  ;  lying  at  the  root  of  all 
natural  science,  and  touching  so  closely  the  social 
sciences  also.  As  Miss  Busk  says  :  ''  The  magni- 
tude of  its  educative  value  will  be  realised  when 
teachers  understand  that  it  is  a  subject  which 
develops  the  child's  ability  in  many  different 
directions  rather  than  along  any  one  special  line, 
and  renders  the  mind  more  receptive  of  new 
ideas  in  very  varied  fields  of  knowledge." 

How  then,  it  may  be  asked,  can  the  teaching 
of  geography  be  carried  out  so  as  in  fact  to  do 
what  has  been  claimed  for  it  ?     Let  us  take  the 


GEOGRAPHY  125 

case  of  a  boy  entering  a  school  at  the  age  of 
nine  or  ten,  and  we  will  assume  that  he  has 
learned  nothing  of  geography,  though  it  will  be 
fortunate  if  he  has  escaped  being  burdened  with 
names  that  conveyed  nothing  to  him  and  a  few 
taofs  of  information  that  he  could  not  understand. 
Mr.  H.  J.  Mackinder  has  admirably  expressed 
the  aim  to  be  kept  in  view  :  "  The  object  of  the 
teacher  is  to  build  up  a  conception  of  the  surface 
of  the  earth  as  a  product  of  interacting  physical 
forces,  in  order  that  that  surface  may  be  in- 
telligently viewed  as  the  scene  of  social  activities"; 
and  to  carry  out  the  aim  the  first  step  will 
naturally  be  to  learn  something  of  the  inter- 
action of  physical  forces  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  or  in  other  words,  something  of  physio- 
graphy. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  give  details  of  this  course, 
since  there  is  a  substantial  ao^rcement  amono-  the 
available  textbooks  as  to  the  general  subject- 
matter  and  order  of  arrangement,  but  the  follow- 
ing points  may  be  worth  noting.  First,  those 
fundamental  facts  must  be  specially  emphasised 
which  are  capable  of  the  widest  application,  as, 
for  example,  the  laws  of  gravitation,  of  heat  and 
energy,  of  chemical  combination,  etc.,  and  it  need 
hardly  be  said  that  this  should  be  done  with  the 
fullest  possible  observation  of,  and  illustration  from, 
familiar  objects  and  occurrences.  That  is  to  say, 
the  elementary  science  should  at  first  either  be 


126     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

taught  by  the  geography  teacher  as  geography, 
or  if  it  is  done  by  another  teacher  under  another 
title  it  should  be  so  closely  woven  in  with 
geography  that  it  might  still  almost  be  called 
by  the  same  name.  Thus  a  very  elementary 
experimental  course  can  be  worked  out  on  "salt," 
or  **  frost,"  or  "  water- vapour,"  called  physics  by 
the  physicist,  but  having  the  central  idea  really 
geographical.  Attention  should  be  fixed  on  the 
main  factors  determining  the  surface  conditions 
of  the  globe  rather  than  those  which  have  little 
bearing  on  them ;  erosion  due  to  wind,  water, 
and  frost,  for  instance  ;  and  in  such  matters  help 
may  be  found  in  observational  work  near  home. 
Such  phenomena  as  eclipses,  stalactites,  geysers, 
and  typhoons  are  apt  to  have  a  quite  dispro- 
portionate importance  given  to  them.  I  am  con- 
tinually being  corrected  by  small  boys  for  saying 
that  the  earth  is  round  like  a  ball,  and  am 
almost  invariably  told  by  the  same  pupils  that 
it  is  hotter  in  summer  because  the  earth  is  nearer 
the  sun. 

Having  thus  gained  an  insight  into  the  physical 
forces  in  their  action  on  the  globe,  a  map  will  call 
up  in  the  boy's  mind,  with  the  aid  of  his  reasoning 
powers  and  some  exercise  of  imagination,  a  living 
impression  of  the  main  features  of  its  surface. 
But  far  more,  even  than  this,  what  he  has  learnt 
will  make  him  unconsciously  realise  the  oneness 
of  nature  and  the  close  interdependence  of  all 


GEOGRAPHY  127 

those  organised  branches  of  knowledge  which  are 
called  by  various  names  and  grouped  together  as 
natural  science,  and  as  Huxley — the  pioneer  of  a 
rational  study  of  physiography — claims,  ''will 
facilitate  his  subsequent  entry  into  their  portals." 
Against  all  this  it  is  sometimes  urged  that 
physiography  deals  with  so  many  sciences  that 
these  ouofht  to  be  undertaken  first  or  there  will  be 
a  daneer  of  "smattering."  Now  it  is  true  that 
the  facts  on  which  our  knowledge  of  the  earth  is 
based  have  been  drawn  from  many  sciences,  but 
a  grasp  of  these  facts  in  their  relation  to  one 
another  is  surely  the  best  starting-point  for  em- 
barking on  the  special  study  of  each  group. 
Some  regret  may  be  felt  by  the  expert,  where 
the  first  beginnings  of  his  special  study  are  put 
into  the  hands  of  an  amateur ;  but  the  loss, 
which  may  be  a  very  real  one,  is,  I  am  con- 
vinced, far  more  than  made  up  for  by  the  unity 
of  conception  established  ;  and  if  geography  were 
made  to  wait  till  the  astronomer,  the  chemist, 
and  all  the  other  specialists  had  first  had  their 
say,  not  only  would  it  suffer  by  the  delay,  but 
natural  science,  which  has  too  long  been  ham- 
pered by  watertight  compartments,  would  be  the 
loser  also. 

And  before  we  go  further  it  may  be  well  to 
consider  another  objection  which  will  be  almost 
certainly  raised  against  this  scheme  from  the 
start:  that  it  begins  "at  the  wrong  end."     There 


128     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING  I 

\ 
is  a  growing  tendency  to  urge  that  geography,  j 
like  charity,  should  begin  at  home,  and  children  } 
taught  first  to  observe  and  understand  what  lies  ; 
around  them  and  gradually  feel  their  way  out-  < 
ward  to  the  universe.  This  idea  is  in  some  \ 
degree  natural  and  reasonable,  and  certainly  i 
marks  a  healthy  reaction  against  the  older  dog-  '; 
matic  methods  ;  nevertheless  I  venture  to  believe  | 
it  is  not  always  safe  in  practice.  The  attempt  to  | 
base  everything  on  first-hand  observation  ignores  j 
the  fact  that  normal  children  only  observe  what  . 
interests  them,  and  they  are  keenly  interested  in 
knowing  why  a  thing  happens  ;  if  this  can  be  in  j 
any  way  explained  they  will  readily  observe  other  ; 
instances  of  the  same  nature,  whereas  the  process  | 
of  inductive  reasoning  from  the  facts  observed  is  | 
often  quite  beyond  them  as  a  rule ;  thus  it  is  far  ; 
easier  for  a  quite  young  child  to  get  a  tolerable  ' 
idea  of  the  solar  system  than  to  draw  any  \ 
induction  from  the  varying  length  of  a  shadow  1 
at  the  meridian.  The  scientific  explanation  is  ! 
therefore  a  stimulus  to,  rather  than  a  natural  ! 
result  of,  observation,  and  the  reversed  i 
order  often  fails.  Again,  the  idea  that  it  is  | 
simpler  to  draw  scientific  conclusions  from  one's  \ 
immediate  surroundings  does  not  take  into 
account  the  exceedingly  complex  factors  which 
go  to  produce  these  surroundings.  It  is  in  fact 
far  simpler  to  account  for  the  trade  winds  or 
monsoons   than    to   explain   the   meteorological    j 

i 


GEOGRAPHY  129 

conditions  on  an  average  English  day ;  or  to 
grasp  the  main  geological  formations  of  the 
British  Isles,  and  their  origin,  than  to  follow  the 
surface  evidence  of  them  in  a  particular  locality. 
The  early  training  in  observation  is  good,  but 
the  conclusions  drawn  from  the  observations 
may  be  confused,  inadequate,  or  misleading. 
Putting  aside  for  a  moment  these  objections  to 
the  method,  there  remain  grave  practical  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  its  accomplishment.  A  system 
which  imperatively  demands  specially  gifted  and 
highly  trained  teachers,  as  this  emphatically  does, 
cannot,  under  present  conditions  at  all  events, 
hope  for  general  acceptance  in  our  secondary 
schools  ;  while  differences  of  locality  must  almost 
inevitably  be  reflected  in  the  relative  Importance 
which  the  pupil  attaches  to  different  types  of 
phenomena. 

It  should  be  clearly  understood  that  there  is  no 
desire  or  intention  to  detract  from  the  value  of 
nature-study.  It  has  its  own  place,  and  an  im- 
portant one,  in  education,  and  from  the  point  of  view 
of  geography  it  has  the  greatest  use  as  an  accom- 
paniment to  and  a  preparation  for  the  scientific 
study  of  the  subject ;  but  to  base  the  teaching  of 
geography  on  first-hand  observation  alone  is  to 
set  both  pupil  and  teacher  a  well-nigh  impossible 
task. 

Assuming,  then,  that  our  boy  has  mastered  the 
rudiments    of    physiography,    their   result    must 


I30     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

next  be  studied  on  the  life  of  the  globe.  It  is  at 
this  point  that  physiography  too  often  breaks 
down,  and  if  it  refuses  to  go  further  we,  at  least, 
must  go  on,  for  the  elements  of  plant  and  animal 
physiology  are  as  necessary  to  a  real  com- 
prehension of  geography  as  are  those  of  as- 
tronomy, geology,  and  the  like.  They  are  the 
links  that  bind  them  to  the  study  of  mankind  in 
its  relation  to  nature,  by  turning  the  knowledge 
of  soil  and  climate  which  physiography  has  given 
us  to  practical  account,  and  enabling  us  to  under- 
stand the  great  belts  of  vegetation,  and  their 
consequences,  economic  and  political  (as,  for  ex- 
ample, why  we  import  wheat  from  Canada  and 
wool  from  Australia).  It  is  safe  to  say  that  with- 
out some  knowledge  of  the  conditions  of  plant 
and  animal  life  the  political  map  of  Africa  is 
altogether  meaningless.  The  general  study  of 
man  will  naturally  follow,  and  it  is  perhaps  hardly 
necessary  to  plead  that  a  more  scientific  account 
should  be  given  of  his  place  in  the  economy  of 
the  world.  The  teachings  of  anthropology  are 
another  indispensable  link  in  our  chain,  enabling 
us  to  understand  something  of  the  varying  forms 
and  degrees  of  civilisation,  and  I  would  lay  far 
more  stress  on  this  than  on  the  sister  science  of 
ethnology,  as  being  the  parent  of  history. 
Finally,  an  acquaintance  with  the  broad  principles 
of  economics  will  complete  the  equipment  of  our 
pupil    for    entering    on    the    study    of   regional 


GEOGRAPHY  131 

geography  in  all  its  aspects.  This  I  would  regard 
as,  in  the  first  instance,  little  more  than  a  series 
of  exercises  in  applying  with  the  help  of  maps  the 
principles  already  learnt  to  special  areas.  The 
close  dependence  of  regional  or  applied  geo- 
graphy on  what,  for  lack  of  a  better  name,  may 
be  called  general  geography — the  term  physical 
geography  is  too  narrow — is  often  lost  sight  of, 
while  regional  geography  is  made  to  include 
almost  anything  which  appears  to  the  teacher  or 
writer  as  interesting  or  instructive.  Here,  more 
than  ever,  some  unifying  principle  is  needed,  in 
other  words  a  recognised  nucleus,  so  to  speak, 
round  which  all  subsequent  information  from  what- 
ever source  may  find  a  fitting  place,  and  from 
which  more  specialised  study  may  be  developed. 
Such  a  nucleus  may,  I  think,  be  found  in  a  care- 
ful application  of  the  conclusions  arrived  at  in 
general  geography  to  the  region  under  con- 
sideration, interpreted  so  far  as  need  be  in  the 
light  of  history. 

A  true  understanding  of  the  really  difficult 
problems  can,  of  course,  only  come  at  a  later 
stage,  when  with  a  broadened  outlook  and  a 
greater  knowledge  of  other  sciences,  a  pupil  can 
enter  into  local  detail  without  the  danger  of  dis- 
tortion. Here  comes  in  the  importance  of  con- 
tinuing geography  in  the  later  stages  of  school 
work,  since  much  of  its  teaching  can  only  be 
realised   by  older  pupils,   and  because  the   fruit 


132     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING  ; 

of  the  earlier  work  is  largely  lost  if  the  subject  is  j 

cut  off  before  it  has  been  fully  shown  that  it  is  ] 

the  common  ground  where  all  other  sciences  may  i 

meet  and  overlap.  I 

As  has  been  already  shown,  this  earlier  work 
is  mainly  concerned  with  the  nature  of  the  geo- 
graphical features  and  conditions  of  the  earth's 

surface,  and  though  all  along  their  influence  on  ; 
man  is  kept  in  view,  it  is  especially  in  the  later 

stages  of  secondary  education   that  the  teacher  ( 

can  set  to  work  to  classify  and   rearrange   the  | 

knowledge    previously    gained.       Facts   learned  ] 
before  can  now  be  revised  and  added   to,  and 

grouped  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  out  clearly  ' 

and  in  greater  detail  how  geographical  features,  i 

forces,  and  conditions  have  affected  and  do  affect  \ 

man  in  his  ''  social  activities,"  to  establish  geo-  j 

graphy  as  **  the  meeting-point  of  history  and  the  i 

natural  sciences."  I 

For   example,    one   can   trace   the   growth  of  ' 

towns   along   what  at  one  time  were  the   open  , 

lines  of  communication,  or  one  can  compare  and  \ 

contrast  the  history  of  all  those  countries  with  l 

a  mountain-wall  for  frontier.      Also  prominence  ; 

must  now  be  given  to  those  surface  features  which  j 

are  the  work  of  man,  and  not  of  nature  only  :  \ 
artificial  harbours,  railways,  bridges,  canals,  and 
all  those  means  which  are  helping  on  a  greater 

unity,  understanding,  and  sympathy  between  the  ' 

nations  of  the  world.     In  the  consideration  of  the  j 


GEOGRAPHY  133 

effects  of  geography  on  history  and  vice  versa, 
such  features  are  acquiring  vast  importance  ;  for, 
whereas  the  development  of  man  has  hitherto 
mainly  been  controlled  by  the  forces  of  nature, 
his  struggle  with  these  forces  has  been  so  far 
successful  that  he  is  now  in  part  controlling 
them. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  considerations 
for  older  pupils  to  enquire  into  :  how  food  may 
be  found  for  our  millions  at  home,  how  water  is 
brought  to  the  desert,  how  ice-bound  roads  are 
opened,  and  how  the  breaking  down  of  barriers 
the  finding  of  means  of  communication,  and  of 
fields  for  work,  etc.,  is  going  to  affect  the  pro- 
gress of  mankind. 

Methods  of  study  in  these  later  stages  (as  in  all) 
will  largely  depend  upon  the  ingenuity  and  per- 
sonal power  of  the  teacher.  The  writing  of  essays 
on  such  subjects  as  above  indicated  is  a  good 
way,  helping  the  power  of  accurate  thought  and 
expression. 

It  is  stimulating,  too,  for  the  pupils  to  be  set 
economic  problems  to  which  they  must  search  for 
the  answers  from  any  available  sources,  books, 
newspapers,  magazines,  and  the  like. 

Regional  geography  so  studied  is  valuable  too 
(this  has  been  mentioned  before)  as  a  means  of 
gathering  a  good  deal  of  useful  **  general  know- 
ledge "  which  does  not  seem  to  fall  under  other 
headings  ;  and  just  as  method  is  dependent  upon 


134     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 


the  teacher,  so  also  out  of  the  many  possible 
lines  along  which  geography  can  be  studied — 
physical,  political,  commercial,  military,  historical, 
etc. — the  one  followed  in  any  given  school  will  be 
decided  by  the  qualifications  of  the  teacher,  the 
local  conditions  of  the  school,  and  most  of  all 
the  requirements  of  the  pupil.  But  however 
various  such  requirements  may  be,  and  whatever 
the  special  studies  that  each  individual  may  at- 
tempt, we  shall  expect  to  find  him,  as  he  goes  on, 
more  and  more  conscious  of  the  essential  unity 
of  all  phenomena,  and  echoing  Huxley's  dictum 
that  '*to  attain  to  even  an  elementary  conception 
of  what  goes  on  in  his  own  parish  he  must  know 
something  about  the  universe." 


XI 


SCIENCE   IN  THE  TEACHING   OF 
HISTORY 

By  F.  M.  POWICKE,  M.A, 

IF  there  is  a  methodical  way  of  presenting 
scientific  truths  in  nature  to  the  growing 
mind,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  there 
must  be  some  similar  way  of  presenting 
historical  truth — an  orthodoxy  in  historical  teach- 
ing. Now,  I  take  it  for  granted,  on  authority, 
that  there  is  an  orthodoxy  in  scientific  teaching. 
The  argument,  presumably,  runs  something  like 
this :  **  The  subject-matter  of  my  study,  physics, 
chemistry,  biology,  or  what  not,  is  a  series  of 
laws,  which  form  a  coherent  code.  In  teaching, 
I  desire  to  give  not  only  a  knowledge  of  this 
code,  but  also  a  sense  of  its  unity,  its  complexity, 
its  fascinating  inexorableness,  its  problems.  There 
must  be  a  right  way  and  a  wrong  way  of  doing 
this.  Here  is  the  right  way."  The  difficulty,  if 
there  is  any  difficulty,  is  not  to  prove  that  the 
laws  of  a  science  are  laws,  but  to  show  what  the 
laws  mean  and  how  they  involve  other  laws,  and 

135 


136     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

are  intelligible,  so  far  as  anything  can  be  in- 
telligible. 

It  is  at  this  point  that  I  am  asked  to  begin  : 
**  Take  history,  the  story  of  men  and  their  deeds 
on  this  earth,  and  say  how  one  man  or  woman  is 
to  explain  the  story,  so  as  to  reveal  the  laws  of 
human  action,  and  the  manner  in  which  one  deed 
follows  from  another,  the  change  in  society,  and 
all  the  other  things  which  form  the  subject-matter 
of  your  science."  And  this  is  just  what  most 
people  who  like  history  will  refuse  to  do. 

At  first  we  (for  all  must  share  the  responsibility) 
begin  to  wriggle.  We  say :  "  There  is  a  very 
beautiful  science  which  teaches  how  to  get  at  the 
truth."  This  sounds  promising.  *^  This  science  is 
called  by  many  names.  You  can  by  its  means 
discover  whether  a  document  is  forged  or  genuine ; 
if  it  is  genuine,  you  can  find  out  whether  some 
detail  which  it  narrates,  the  date  of  a  battle,  the 
name  of  an  official,  etc.,  is  likely  to  be  true  or 
not,  and  if  likely  to  be  true,  to  what  extent." 
But  by  this  time  we  are  interrupted  and  informed 
that  textual  criticism  or  palaeography  are  not 
usually  taught  in  schools,  and  have  nothing  to  do 
with  the  teaching  of  history  there.  That  is  not 
^uz^e  true,  as  we  shall  see  ;  but  let  it  pass. 

The  next  objection  is  more  subtle  and  really 
very  hard  to  answer.  We  say  boldly :  *'  There 
are  no  laws  in  history.  It  is  not  a  science  at  all. 
And,  if  it  is  not  a  science  at  all,  there  cannot  be 


SCIENCE  IN  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY    137 

a  scientific  way  of  teaching  it ;  so  there  is  an  end 
of  the  matter."  Now,  ceasing  to  play  the  advo- 
cate, let  us  see  if  this  is  the  end  of  the  matter. 

It  is,  of  course,  true  that  no  amount  of  historical 
study  can  bring  us  to  the  discovery  of  a  necessary 
framework  upon  which  the  story  of  man  is  woven 
in  a  fixed  pattern.  Many  people  believe  that  this 
is  the  case,  but  the  reasons  for  their  belief  are 
theological  reasons.  Nor  can  any  one  be  abso- 
lutely sure,  apart  from  similar  religious  or  moral 
influences  in  his  conviction,  that  history  reveals  a 
steady  progress  towards  a  good  society  of  good 
men.  Yet  our  feelings  upon  this  point  are 
generally  due  in  great  part  to  historical  study  ; 
we  may  not  be  quite  certain,  but  simply  as  students 
of  history,  we  may  reasonably  feel  that  there  is  a 
slow  and  steady  advance  towards  what  we  call 
good.  No  teacher  who  has  reverence  for  the 
mind  of  a  boy  or  girl  would  force  an  ''  interpreta- 
tion of  history "  upon  his  pupils ;  but  he  would 
none  the  less  be  eager  to  show  them  how  one 
fact  led  on  to  another,  simply  because  he  would 
desire  to  encourage  a  process  of  thought :  and  if 
a  boy  begins  to  think  a  piece  of  history  out, 
he  cannot  help  regarding  history  itself  as  a  process 
of  thought.  It  will  be  many  years  before  he 
is  distracted  by  the  philosophy  which  tells  him  to 
consider  himself  as  the  creator,  to  say  :  "  These 
facts  are  meaningless,  till  I  regard  them."  Now 
it  is  just  here  that  scientific  method  may  be  said 


138     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

to  begin.  There  is  no  difficulty  in  making  a  boy 
feel  that  history  is  a  chart  of  cause  and  effect ; 
but  there  is  great  difficulty  in  showing  him  what 
the  causes  and  effects  really  are.  The  difficulty 
is,  I  suppose,  the  opposite  of  the  difficulty  in 
natural  science.  There  the  facts  to  be  explained 
are  obvious.  So  far  as  they  are  present  to  the 
senses,  they  are  as  obvious  to  the  child  as 
to  the  teacher.  The  laws  are  hidden.  The 
teacher  of  history,  on  the  other  hand,  can  express 
the  relation  of  cause  and  effect  at  once.  For 
example,  very  little  intelligence  is  required  to 
understand  that  the  Papacy  rested  upon  the  laws 
and  institutions  of  the  Roman  Empire,  or  that 
there  is  some  connection  between  Henry  Ill's 
Parliaments  and  those  of  to-day.  I  think  we  are 
tempted  to  waste  a  great  deal  of  time  in  labouring 
these  connections.  The  difficulty  before  the  scien- 
tific teacher  of  history  is  in  the  description  of  the 
change,  not  in  its  explanation.  Any  one  who  has 
examined  history  papers  knows  this.  They  are 
full  of  the  philosophy  of  history,  or  of  picturesque 
nonsense,  and  the  truth  of  the  former  is  as  un- 
intelligent as  is  the  falsity  of  the  latter.  When 
the  boy  or  girl  grows  up  and  begins  to  read 
books  like  Maine's  Ancient  Law,  or  Guizot's 
European  Civilisation  (to  name  two  favourite 
Oxford  books),  the  effect  is  the  well-known 
eighteenth-century  essay,  well  written,  in  a  way 
intelligent,  true — and  yet  not  historical.     This  is 


SCIENCE  IN  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY    139 

why,  in  spite  of  his  great  learning,  Professor 
Freeman  never  succeeded  in  making  the  English- 
men before  the  Norman  Conquest  real.  He 
revelled  in  cause  and  effect  and  analogies,  as  a 
mathematician  revels  in  a  puzzle. 

It  may  be  urged  at  this  point  :  "  You  are  not 
speaking  of  scientific  method  after  all,  but  of  the 
need  of  some  imaginative  faculty."  Certainly 
imagination  is  the  everyday  quality  of  the  his- 
torian, just  as  a  quick  hand  and  ready  eye  are 
essential  to  the  experimentalist  in  a  laboratory. 
The  historical  imagination  is  more  than  boldness 
of  thought.  It  is,  as  has  been  well  said,  an 
impulse  stronger  than  prudence.  **  Our  eyes 
are  wakeful  only  for  a  little  space  ;  let  us  win  for 
them  a  sight  of  the  unpeopled  world,  South  of  the 
Sun  ?  "  ^  We  are  beginning  to  be  satisfied  again 
with  the  fairy  tale  of  the  nursery  and  the  legends 
taught  in  the  junior  forms  of  schools,  because  they 
awaken  this  precious  faculty.  But  I  contend 
that  a  strict  scientific  method  must  control  this 
faculty  when  history  begins  to  be  studied  seriously 
in  schools.  In  the  first  place,  that  process  of 
thought  to  which  I  have  referred  must  be  en- 
couraged as  a  presupposition  of  historical  know- 
ledge, providing  easily  understood  processes  of 
fact.  In  the  second  place,  the  terms  of  this 
process  must  be  examined  and  presented  to  the 

»  See  W.  P.  Ker,  The  Philosophy  of  History  (Maclehose,  is.), 
p.  14,  where  this  is  quoted. 


I40     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

mind,  so  that  the  process  is  controlled  and  cor- 
rected and  given  real  meaning.  This  needs  work, 
and  scientific  work. 

A  boy,  let  us  say,  is  told  that  the  Parliament 
of  1295  was  a  model  Parliament.  He  appreciates 
without  difficulty  that  it  consisted  of  barons, 
clergy,  knights,  burgesses,  selected  or  elected 
in  somewhat  different  ways ;  he  appreciates  also 
the  cause  of  their  assembly,  and  their  importance 
as  the  forerunner  of  the  English  Houses  of 
Parliament.  But  he  knows  nothing  about  the 
Parliaments  of  Edward  I  if  he  knows  only  this.  If 
his  teacher  can  convey  no  impression  to  him  of 
the  position  and  nature  of  the  several  estates,  the 
informality  of  the  royal  court,  the  procedure  of 
petitioning,  the  composition  of  a  shire  court  at 
the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  wealth  and 
influence  of  the  Church,  the  meaning  of  a 
statute  and  of  the  Common  Law,  the  theory  of 
kingship,  and  so  on — if,  instead  of  the  truth,  he 
gives  modern  meanings  to  mediaeval  things,  his 
general  rule  is  unintelligible  to  him,  and  the 
history  of  the  next  three  centuries  will  increase 
his  confusion.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  boy — 
well  fed  on  romances  and  acquainted  with  castles, 
abbeys,  weapons,  or  pictures  of  them — has  been 
placed  in  the  right  attitude,  the  wonderful  vision 
of  the  growth  of  Parliament  will  gradually  break 
upon  him,  as  naturally  as  the  sight  of  Here  ward 
or  Drake  in  his  earlier  years. 


SCIENCE  IN  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY    141 

This  is  a  trite  illustration.  It  is  dull  and 
obvious.  I  give  it,  because  it  shows  that,  with- 
out serious  work  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  even 
the  dull  and  obvious  parts  of  English  history 
cannot  be  taught.  Maitland's  introduction  to 
the  records  of  the  Parliament  held  in  1307  must 
have  been  a  revelation  to  many  who  had  trodden 
the  hard  fog-bound  track  for  years.  But,  of 
course,  the  value  of  scientific  method  in  teaching 
history  may  be  seen  by  more  picturesque  illustra- 
tions. A  great  deal  of  archaeology  is  now  taught  in 
schools.  I  believe  that  there  is  a  science  of 
teaching  young  children  how  to  make  models  and 
so  on  to  show  the  transition  from  the  flint  to  the 
lance  and  suit  of  mail,  from  the  log  cabin  to 
White  House.  This  is  amusing,  and  I  should 
fancy  really  useful  if  the  teacher  enters  into  the 
game.  It  would  be  very  tedious  to  talk  about  it 
— the  fun  lies  in  doing  it,  and  in  leaving  off  when 
we  are  tired.  Every  teacher  soon  finds  out  how 
far  he  is  fitted  to  teach  in  this  way,  or  has  a 
capacity  for  lecturing  with  the  aid  of  a  magic- 
lantern.  The  results  of  archaeological  research, 
however,  may  be  made  to  have  a  deeper  meaning 
for  the  schoolboy.  They  stir  wonder,  and  wonder 
brings  reflection,  which,  if  well  guided,  may 
suggest  some  law,  or  rather  custom,  of  develop- 
ment. 

The  value  of  history,  for  the  child  as  for  the 
man,  is  just  that  it  provides  illustration  of  truths 


142     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

which  become  meaningless  if  they  are  left  alone, 
as  a  god  dies  if  it  has  no  victims.  We  should 
start  from  the  theory  or  the  law — regarding  it 
definitely  as  a  thing  of  human  contrivance,  dis- 
covered or  suggested  by  the  same  effort  as  any 
theory  or  law  of  natural  science,  but  the  begin- 
ning, rather  than  the  goal,  of  enquiry.  It  is 
said  that  fifty  years  ago  the  vicar  of  Bradford-on- 
Avon,  looking  down  from  the  top  row  of  that 
hilly  little  town,  noticed  that  the  roofs  of  some 
cottaores  near  the  church  concealed  the  form  of 
some  ecclesiastical  building — and  so  he  discovered 
the  most  perfect  Saxon  church  in  England. 
This  is  the  crude  beginning  of  scientific  discovery, 
but  is  like  any  other  in  this — that  we  must  start 
from  the  law.  This  fascinates  a  boy,  just  as  he 
is  fascinated  by  the  knowledge  that  a  zoologist 
can  construct  an  extinct  animal  by  studying  a 
single  bone.  If  he  is  taken  to  a  ruin,  and  knows 
how  a  Cistercian  abbey  was  built,  he  will  specu- 
late eagerly  and  intelligently  about  the  meaning 
of  the  tumbled  stones.  This  is  better  than  essays 
about  the  place  of  monasticism  in  history  (a  sub- 
ject upon  which  he  is  unable  to  form  an  opinion), 
and  very  much  better  than  sentimental  reconstruc- 
tions of  the  monastic  life  ;  for  the  end  is  gained 
indirectly.  The  boy  will  speculate  afterwards,  if 
he  is  interested. 

The     teacher    of  natural    science    increases 
knowledge,  the  teacher  of  history  shows  the  full- 


SCIENCE  IN  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY    143 

ness  of  life.  Both  increase  wonder,  and  both 
need  the  scientific  method.  Otherwise  we  know 
what  happens. 

The  dignities  of  plain  occurrence  then 

Were  tasteless,  and  truth's  golden  mean,  a  point 

Where  no  sufficient  pleasure  could  be  found. 

Hence  men,  Hke  boys,  seek  vain  explana- 
tions. Thus,  for  example,  they  treated  Apollo 
as  the  personification  of  the  sun ;  but  more 
patient  scholars,  who  came  later,  took  Apollo 
as  they  found  him  before  the  days  of  the  theolo- 
gians ;  they  treated  him  scientifically  and  seriously 
as  a  fact.  They  cannot  trace  his  origin,  but 
they  see  what  he  was  in  the  great  days  of  Greece, 
and  the  story  of  his  influence  illustrates  one 
of  the  two  great  truths  of  life — the  dependence 
of  man — so  that  we  know  better  what  the  old- 
fashioned  Greek  thought  of  the  family,  and  the 
State,  and  nature.  And  this  is  history,  and  the 
only  way  to  teach  history  is  to  know  how  it  is 
discovered.  No  teacher  of  history  can  afford  to 
be  a  dilettante,  or  to  despise  those  sciences  of 
which  I  spoke  earlier,  though  of  course  there  is 
no  need  for  him  to  be  an  expert. 

In  order  to  show  something  of  the  impressive- 
ness  of  history,  some  such  method  as  the  following 
might  be  adopted.  Just  as  boys  and  girls  are 
encouraged  to  read  and  hear  stories  when  they 
are  very  young,  so  they  ought  to  be  encouraged 


144    BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

to  read  history  as  they  grow  older.  But  they 
should  read  it  for  themselves  as  a  pastime — those 
who  will  not  read  it  will  seldom  be  really  interested 
in  historical  teaching.  Up  to  the  last  year  or 
two  of  school  life,  I  think  that  there  should  be  no 
history  teaching  proper.  Some  dates  and  lists 
might  be  learned — the  alphabet  of  the  study — 
and  children  should  be  encouraged  to  talk  and 
question  and  elaborate  theories  of  their  own. 
They  ought  to  be  made  to  feel  that  a  great  and 
important  study  lay  in  front  of  them — but  nothing 
serious  ought  to  be  attempted.  It  is  surely  better 
that  a  boy  should  have  read  some  Macaulay  or 
Gibbon  and  have  known  nothing  of  what  scien- 
tific historical  study  is  before  the  age  of  sixteen 
or  seventeen.  I  have  listened  to  innumerable 
papers  on  how  to  teach  history  to  young  children, 
and  they  all  seemed  to  me  to  be  words.  Then 
when  the  teaching  does  begin,  it  should  be  real. 
The  teacher  must  know  his  work  through  and 
through.  He  should  shirk  nothing  in  the  way 
of  law  and  idea  which  arises  out  of  his  subject, 
because  he  has  to  test  everything  and  train  the 
mind  of  his  pupils  to  be  patient,  interested  in 
life  rather  than  in  drawing  deductions  from  life, 
eager  to  get  at  the  truth  after  trouble,  like  getting 
a  fine  view  after  a  dull  walk.  There  should  be 
no  hurry  at  school  to  fix  and  define  the  sequence 
of  civilisation,  but  there  should  be  great  care  to 
make  the  different  stages  real  and  living.     The 


SCIENCE  IN  THE  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY    145 

test  of  success  is  that  the  boys  and  girls  are  keen 
on  what  happened — for  they  are  in  the  stage  of 
romance — before  they  are  keen  on  why  it  hap- 
pened. For  then,  after  the  inevitable  period  in 
which  the  intelligence  deserts  history  for  philo- 
sophy, it  will  return.  This  period  generally 
comes  in  the  first  year  or  so  of  university  life. 
It  is  inevitable,  but  only  for  the  awakened 
intelligence. 

There  is  one  last  anxious  query,  **What 
should  we  teach?"  Here  I  am  very  bold.  So 
long  as  it  has  some  connection  with  what  is 
known  or  interesting  or  compelling — whether  it 
be  the  blue  Mediterranean  or  the  British  Empire 
— let  it  be  anything.  For,  if  the  first  obvious 
law  of  cause  and  effect — the  starting-point — be 
the  guide,  the  subject  is  sure  to  be  a  big  subject  ; 
and,  if  so,  it  will  lead  on  and  on.  The  teacher 
must  know  where  it  is  leading,  and  ever  keep  it 
from  getting  too  wild,  and  should  prepare  ac- 
cordingly. But  there  is  no  hard  and  fast  rule  of 
companionship  in  history  any  more  than  there  is 
in  our  present  life. 


XII 

ECONOMIC   SCIENCE   IN  SECONDARY 
SCHOOLS 

By  AUGUSTUS  KAHN,  M.A. 

THE  writer  desires  at  once  to  disclaim 
any  intention  of  advocating  the  addi- 
tion of  a  new  subject  to  the  general 
curriculum.  ''  Economics  "  is  already 
in  the  curriculum,  not  indeed  as  a  **  science,"  but 
as  **sums"  to  be  done.  By  universal  consent, 
"Interest,"  ''Discount,"  **  Stocks  and  Shares," 
*' Profit  and  Loss,"  ''Partnership,"  and  "Ex- 
change "  are  included  in  the  arithmetic  syllabus. 
The  fact  that  we  cling  to  these  topics  seems  to 
indicate  a  sense  of  the  incompleteness  of  a  course 
of  general  education  which  would  take  no  account 
of  man's  economic  environment.  Our  pupils  will 
later  on  in  life  have  to  earn  and  to  spend ;  they 
will  have  to  pay  rates  and  taxes  ;  they  may  wish 
to  save  and  invest,  and  insure  their  lives.  One 
might,  indeed,  go  further  and  point  out  that  the 
obligations  of  citizenship  involve  an  intelligent 
grasp  not  only  of  municipal  and  national  finance, 

146 


ECONOMICS   IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS      147 

but  also  of  the  larger  economic  questions  that 
enter  into  the  sphere  of  practical  politics.  As 
a  matter  of  experience,  however,  our  pupils  do 
not  carry  from  their  arithmetic  lessons  any  very 
definite  notions  of  stocks  and  shares.  We  ought 
not  to  expect  it — we  should  not  expect  physics 
to  be  taught  from  arithmetical  exercises. 

Now  if  a  subject  with  a  new  label  is  not  to  be 
entertained,  it  may,  at  any  rate,  be  urged  that  the 
lessons  in  applied  arithmetic  should  assume  the 
character  primarily  of  lessons  in  the  economics 
of  everyday  life.  Arithmetical  applications  in 
their  proper  place  will  both  strengthen  the  eco- 
nomics and  the  arithmetic.  There  is  no  objection, 
of  course,  to  the  teacher  of  arithmetic  continuing 
to  give  the  lessons,  provided  only  that  he  have 
the  requisite  knowledge  of  economics. 

A  sketch  of  a  suggested  course  of  lessons 
may,  it  is  hoped,  serve  the  main  purpose  of  this 
article : — 

I.  Interest,  {a)  The  productive  nature  of 
capital  led  up  to  by  concrete  cases,  e.g. — A 
hawker  invests  2s.  in  toys  and  sells  them  for  3s. 
His  profit  is  is.  This  profit  is  due  partly  to  his 
labour  and  pardy  to  his  capital — the  part  due  to 
his  capital  is  the  interest  on  his  capital.  Again, 
a  hawker  of  baked  chestnuts  buys  2s.  worth  of 
raw  chestnuts,  possesses  an  oven  worth  5s.  and 
coke  worth  6d.  He  sells  his  chestnuts  in  the 
course  of  the  day  for  4s.     He  replaces  the  sold 


148     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

chestnuts  and  3d.  worth  of  coke  consumed,  so 
as  to  put  him  into  the  position  in  which  he  started. 
In  addition  to  his  initial  wealth  he  has  is.  gd., 
which  is  the  result  of  his  labour  and  his  capital. 
If  IS.  is  regarded  as  the  remuneration  of  his  labour, 
then  gd,  is  the  interest  on  his  capital  of  7s.  6d. 
for  one  day. 

(d)  The  term  "  interest "  is  used  also  in  another 
sense.  If  A  has  a  c/azm  on  B  for  jCso  payable 
in  three  months'  time,  and  transfers  the  claim  to  C 
for  an  immediate  payment  of  jC49  ios.,  then  los. 
is  the  difference  between  the  amount  of  the  claim 
and  its  present  value.  This  los.  is  called  the 
interest  on  the  present  value  for  three  months. 
Or  suppose  A  lends  B  ;^ioo  for  six  months.  B 
might,  of  course,  use  the  ;^ioo  productively,  but 
he  might  also  *'  consume  "  the  money.  The  pur- 
pose of  the  ;^ioo  is  not  enquired  into  by  the 
lender.  He  gives  up  a  present  possession  of 
;^ioo  in  return  for  a  c/atm  of  ;^ioo+:i:  realisable 
after  six  months.  The  £x  is  the  interest  on 
;^ioo  for  six  months. 

1 1.  Money.  We  give  up  things  for  gold,  because 
with  the  gold  we  can  procure  other  things.  Gold 
is  thus  a  medium  of  exchange.  For  the  sake  of 
convenience,  the  Mint  makes  pieces  of  gold  of 
definite  weight  and  of  definite  fineness.  In  fact, 
out  of  40  lbs.  troy  of  standard  gold  (i.e.  gold  of 
W  fineness),  the  Mint  coins  1869  sovereigns. 
Arithmetical  applications  : — Out  of  i  oz.  troy  of 


ECONOMICS   IN   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS      149 

standard  gold  are  made  3*89375  sovereigns 
{  =  £3  17s.  io|^d.).  The  weight  of  a  sovereign 
is  123*27447  grains,  or  7*98805  grammes. 

The  Mint  coins  gold  free  of  charge  ;  so  that 
an  ounce  of  uncoined  gold  would  be  the  equiva- 
lent of  an  ounce  of  coined  gold,  were  it  not  for  the 
time  (about  two  or  three  weeks)  which  it  takes 
to  coin  the  gold.  It  is  found  preferable,  indeed, 
to  sell  bullion  to  the  Bank  of  England  at  the 
minimum  rate  of  £3  17s.  9d.  per  oz.  of  standard 
gold.  An  arithmetical  application  would  com- 
pare the  loss  of  interest  entailed  by  utilising 
the  Mint  with  the  minimum  loss  of  i|^d.  occasioned 
by  selling  bullion  to  the  Bank  of  England. 

A  melted  shilling  is  by  no  means  worth  the 
twentieth  part  of  a  sovereign,  as  will  easily  appear 
from  the  quoted  price  of  silver  and  the  weight 
of  the  shilling.  Yet  twenty  shillings  exchange 
readily  for  a  sovereign,  because  public  confidence 
in  their  exchangeability  is  maintained  by  limiting 
the  coinage  of  silver  to  the  amount  demanded 
for  the  purpose  of  small  transactions.  The  ex- 
changeability of  bronze  coins  is  similarly  main- 
tained. 

A  sovereign  performs  also  the  function  of 
measuring  the  value  of  wealth ;  and  by  virtue 
of  this  function  we  dispense  to  an  enormous 
extent  with  the  use  of  gold  as  a  medium  of 
exchange. 

III.  The  banking  system  enables  payments  to 


I50     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

be  made  by  transference  of  "credit."  If  A  has 
a  current  account  with  a  bank,  he  may  pay  B  by 
giving  him  a  cheque  (not  exceeding  the  amount 
of  his  account)  on  his  bank.  Suppose  firstly  that 
B  has  a  current  account  with  the  same  bank.  If 
he  pays  in  this  cheque  to  his  account,  the  bank 
debits  A  with  the  amount  and  credits  B  with  the 
amount.  Suppose  next  that  B  has  his  current 
account  with  another  bank.  Then  B  may  still 
pay  in  the  cheque  to  his  account,  and  if  both 
banks  are  represented  at  the  Clearing  House, 
and  have  balances  with  the  Bank  of  England, 
the  Clearing  House  to  which  the  cheque  is  sent 
will  arrange  for  a  transference  of  the  amount  of 
the  cheque  from  the  balance  of  As  bank  with  the 
Bank  of  England  to  the  balance  of  B's  bank. 
As  bank  will  debit  A,  and  B's  bank  will  credit  B 
with  the  amount.  Banks  that  are  not  repre- 
sented at  the  Clearing  House  make  use  of  banks 
which  are  so  represented. 

The  use  of  the  bank-note  as  a  substitute  for 
coin  and  the  conditions  of  note  issue  will  com- 
plete this  topic. 

IV.  ;^iooo  of  bank-notes  represent  to  the 
holder  ;^iooo  of  wealth,  although  the  notes 
constitute  merely  claims,  A  large  portion  of 
peoples  possessions  are  indeed  made  up  of 
claims.  Among  such  claims  are  stocks  and 
shares.  What  is  Government  stock?  An  ex- 
planation of  the  issue  of  stock  will  lead  up  to 


ECONOMICS   IN   SECONDARY  SCHOOLS      151 

the  meaning  of  Government  stock  as  being  a 
claim  upon  the  Government  to  receive  payments 
of  definite  amounts  at  definite  periods,  either  per- 
petually, or,  if  for  a  certain  number  of  years,  with 
the  additional  claim  to  receive  at  the  expiration 
of  those  years  a  definite  principal  sum.  The 
periodic  payments  are  regarded  as  interest  on  a 
nominal  sum.  If  you  buy  ;^ioo  five  per  cent 
irredeemable  stock  of  a  particular  State  for  ;^98, 
you  are  giving  up  ;^98  for  the  claim  upon  the 
state  for  a  perpetual  annuity  of  £^, 

This  claim  is  marketable  just  like  wheat,  and 
just  as  the  price  of  wheat  is  continually  changing, 
so  the  price  of  this  claim  is  continually  changing. 
[Here  a  digression  on  prices  (with  copious  illus- 
trations) as  determined  by  the  forces  of  supply 
and  demand  will  be  appropriate.]  The  price  of 
the  claim  will,  for  instance,  be  influenced  by 
additional  borrowing  (increasing  the  supply  of 
"  claims  ")  and  by  saving  (increasing  the  demand 
for  "claims"). 

V.  Shares. — In  the  first  place,  it  would  be 
desirable  to  consider  the  association  of  two  or 
more  persons  as  partners,  and  the  sharing  of 
profits  (including  interest  on  capital  and  re- 
muneration for  work  done  by  the  partners)  in 
accordance  with  the  partnership  agreement. 
Profits,  by  the  way,  are  not  necessarily  divided 
in  proportion  to  the  partners'  contributions  of 
capital,    as   they   invariably   are    in   arithmetical 


152     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

textbooks.  Next,  the  nature  of  a  corporate 
body  would  be  explained,  and  the  Limited 
Liability  Company  as  a  particular  form  of  a 
corporate  body  would  receive  full  treatment. 
The  order  of  topics  would  be  :  the  formation  of 
a  limited  liability  company  (in  which  the  liability 
is  limited  by  shares),  the  Memorandum  of 
Association,  the  Articles  of  Association^  the  dis- 
tinction between  authorised  or  nominal  capital, 
subscribed  capital,  and  paid-up  capital,  the 
division  of  the  *'  capital "  into  shares  of  various 
categories,  the  division  of  profits  amongst  the 
shareholders,  the  issue  of  debentures,  the  transfer- 
ability and  the  marketableness  of  shares  and  de- 
bentures, and  the  variations  of  their  prices. 

Such  a  course  of  lessons  with  arithmetical 
applications  may  easily  occupy  two  years  (say 
from  fifteen  to  seventeen  years  of  age).  The 
sketch  is  necessarily  very  brief,  and  deals  only 
with  the  matter  of  instruction.  Space  does  not 
permit  of  a  discussion  of  method  ;  but  it  will  be 
apparent  that  the  "  method  of  discovery  "  (under 
the  direction  of  the  teacher)  coupled  with  the 
** method  of  exposition"  is  applicable  and  ap- 
propriate. 

A  further  question  now  arises,  whether,  in  a 
curriculum  specially  adapted  for  boys  preparing  for 
commercial  life,  a  more  complete  course  of 
economic  science  should  hold  a  prominent  place. 
The  ''political  economy"  which  is  current  in  this 


ECONOMICS   IN   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS      153 

country  does  not  Indeed  appear  to  bear  very  closely 
upon  the  problems  of  business  life.  The  large 
majority  of  successful  business  men  have  never 
heard  of  Ricardo's  Theory  of  Rent,  and  they  have 
never  troubled  about  the  philosophical  niceties 
surrounding  the  meaning  of  wealth  and  capital. 
They  have,  however,  had  economic  problems  to 
solve.  But  there  are  also  the  many  failures,  there 
is  an  army  of  commercial  assistants  who  perform 
their  work  mechanically,  unintelligently,  and  with- 
out interest,  for  whom  ''  experience  "  is  unfruitful 
because  they  have  not  been  taught  to  observe  and 
to  think.  A  preparation  then  at  school — if  it  can 
be  given — which  shall  help  the  pupil  later  on  to 
realise  the  nature  of  his  work,  to  observe  the 
problems  which  lie  before  him,  and  to  place  him- 
self in  the  right  attitude  towards  his  environment 
must  assuredly  be  justified.  Commerce,  it  is  true, 
embraces  a  large  variety  of  occupations,  but  they 
fall  into  a  few  groups  ;  and  even  retail  trading 
(based  largely  on  psychology)  has  economic 
problems  in  common  with  other  branches  of 
trade.  It  is  moreover  the  business  of  scientific 
preparation  rather  to  widen  than  to  narrow  the 
outlook. 

Now  the  actual  proof  of  the  suitability  and  the 
value  of  a  course  of  economic  science  must  be 
furnished  by  experiment ;  and  in  order  to  make 
out  a  prima  facie  case  for  experiment,  the  writer 
will  attempt  to  indicate  the  treatment  of  one  or  two 


154     BROAD   LINES   IN    SCIENCE  TEACHING 

economic  questions  in  the  class-room  of  boys  of, 
say,  seventeen  years  of  age.  Let  us  take  the  quite 
ordinary  commercial  question  of  the  relation  of 
turnover  to  profits.  A  synopsis  of  the  lessons 
would  be  as  follows  : — 

What  are  the  profits  of  a  trader  who  buys  goods 
for  £x  and  sells  them  for  £y}  What  is  the 
actual  addition  to  his  wealth  in  consequence  of 
this  operation  ?  Gross  profits  and  net  profits. 
Net  profits  =  (selling  price)— (cost  price)— (work- 
ing expenses). 

If  he  sells  n  articles  in  a  year  at  s  per  article, 
and  if  the  cost  price  is  c  per  article,  then  net  profits  = 
n{s  —  c)  —  (working  expenses).  Let  working  ex- 
penses be  firstly  proportional,  and  secondly  less 
than  proportional  to  the  number  of  articles  sold  ; 
how  do  net  profits  vary  with  the  number  of  articles 
sold  ?  If  selling  price  is  reduced  to  s-,  what  must 
be  the  increase  in  the  number  of  articles  sold,  in 
order  that  the  net  profits  may  not  be  diminished, 
assuming  no  change  in  the  working  expenses  ? 
Applications :  Suitability  of  position  with  due 
regard  to  rent,  the  value  of  goodwill,  multiple 
shops,  department  stores,  tendency  to  retail  dis- 
tribution on  a  large  scale. 

As  a  further  example,  let  us  take  a  lesson  on 
the  effect  of  various  operations  on  the  balance 
sheets  of  the  Issue  Department  and  the  Banking 
Department  of  the  Bank  of  England : — 


ECONOMICS   IN   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS     155 


Issue  Department. 


Liabilities. 


Notes  issued 


Assets. 


£ 


Government  Debt 
and  other  Securi- 
ties  .         .         .  18,450,000 

Coin  and  Bullion 


Banking  Department. 


Liabilities. 


Proprietors' 
Capital  . 

Rest 

Public   Deposits 

Other  Deposits  . 

Seven  Day,  etc.. 
Bills 


£ 

14,553.000 


Assets. 


Government 
Securities 

Other  Securities 

■D  f  Notes 

Reserve  I  (.^.^ 


{a)  The  effect  of  discounting  a  bill  of  exchange  : 
Bills  of  exchange  are  included  in  **  Other  Securities." 
These  therefore  increase.  Suppose  that  the  Bank 
pays  by  cheque :  **  Other  Deposits "  increase. 
The  "  Reserve "  is  unchanged.  The  ratio  of 
'*  Reserve  "  to  **  Deposits  "  is  therefore  diminished. 

[b)  The  effect  of  selling  Consols — ''Govern- 
ment Securities  "  are  decreased ;  if  payment  is 
made  by  cheque,  *'  Other  Deposits  *'  are  decreased  ; 
therefore  ratio  of  "  Reserve  "  to  *'  Deposits  "  is 
increased. 

{c)  The  effect  of  the  withdrawal  of  cash  by 
depositors  :    "  Reserve  "  is  decreased  and  "  De- 


156     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

posits"  are  decreased  by  the  same  amount. 
How  is  the  ratio  *' Reserve "  and  **  Deposits" 
affected  ? 

These  notes  of  lessons  are  intended  to  indi- 
cate both  content  and  method.  We  must  offer 
our  pupils  not  abstract  theory  or  speculation,  but 
matter  that  is  concrete  and  definite  ;  and  we  must 
present  not  chapters  of  a  textbook  to  be  "got 
up,"  but  a  series  of  problems  to  be  solved. 

The  syllabus  of  such  a  course  of  economic 
science  would  be  on  the  following  lines  : — 

1.  Classification    of    Occupations.  —  Industry, 

commerce,  transport,  the  performance  of 
direct  services.     Subdivisions. 

2.  Labour  and  its  remuneration.     Capital  and 

its  remuneration. 

3.  The   Organisation    and  Administration    of 

Business  Enterprise. — Partnership,  limited 
liability  companies. 

4.  Money    and   the    Banking    System. — The 

English  system  of  currency,  the  Bank  of 
England  and  its  relation  to  the  banks, 
''credit"  as  a  substitute  for  coins,  the 
money  market,  some  foreign  systems  of 
currency,  parity  of  exchange,  the  bill 
of  exchange,  methods  of  payment,  rates 
of  exchange. 

5.  The  Retail  Trade. — Fluctuation  of  prices, 

turnover  and  profits,  tendency  towards 
retail  distribution  on  a  large  scale. 


ECONOMICS   IN   SECONDARY   SCHOOLS      157 

6.  The    Wholesale   Home    Trade. — The    com- 

mercial aspect  of  industry,  the  inter- 
mediary between  the  manufacturer  and 
the  retailer,  fluctuation  of  prices. 

7.  Foreign  Trade  and  its  Machinery. — Marine 

insurance,  documents  of  title  to  goods, 
fluctuations  of  prices  of  {a)  raw  produce, 
(b)  manufactured  goods ;  the  settling  of 
international  indebtedness. 

8.  The  Stock  Exchange. 

9.  The  Principles  of   Taxation. — Loans    and 

their  amortisation. 


XIII 
DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

By  ARTHUR  SMITHELLS,  F.R.S. 

jA  MONG  the  many  new  movements  in  the 
/  %  educational  world  there  are  signs  of 
j/  ^  an  increasing  disposition  to  give  to 
girls  of  all  classes  some  systematic 
teaching  and  training  in  matters  relating  to  the 
management  of  a  home.  Instruction  in  the 
household  arts,  such  as  cooking,  laundry  work, 
and  sewing,  has  for  a  considerable  time  past  been 
given  in  the  public  elementary  schools.  The 
provision  of  such  instruction  in  secondary  schools 
is  of  more  recent  origin.  It  usually  follows  the 
ordinary  school  course,  and  is  regarded  as  a 
supplementary  training  for  girls  whose  taste, 
capacity,  or  means  do  not  lead  to  their  passing  to 
a  place  of  higher  education.  In  a  few  schools 
the  courses  are  part  of  the  ordinary  curriculum 
and  constitute  a  sort  of  modern  side. 

The  term  domestic  science  has  been  used 
rather  loosely,  and  is  often  applied  to  subjects 
and  to  a  kind  of  teaching  which  have  nothing  in 
them  to   which    the   word   science   or  scientific 

158 


DOMESTIC   SCIENCE  159 

would  ordinarily  be  applied.  It  will  be  con- 
venient to  make  a  distinction  between  domestic 
arts  and  domestic  science,  not  with  a  view  of 
exalting  one  above  the  other,  but  for  the  sake 
of  clearness. 

It  is  not  the  object  of  this  article  to  discuss 
the  teaching  of  the  domestic  arts,  but  a  few 
words  may  be  devoted  to  the  subject.  The 
notion  still  generally  prevails  that  housewifery, 
which  may  be  regarded  as  a  collective  term  for 
the  domestic  arts,  is,  and  should  be,  learned  by 
the  time-honoured  system  of  apprenticeship,  that 
is  to  say,  a  girl  should  in  the  ordinary  course 
of  things  learn  it  in  her  own  home.  There  is, 
however,  abundant  evidence  to  show  that  this 
apprenticeship  is  often  of  a  very  haphazard 
character  and  very  ineffective,  and  that  there  is 
room  for  courses  of  systematic  instruction  to  be 
conducted  by  teachers  who  have  made  them- 
selves specially  competent  for  the  work.  No 
one  will  doubt  the  utility  to  a  girl  of  the  practical 
proficiency  which  results  from  such  teaching,  but 
many  will  doubt  whether  there  is  much  purely 
educational  value  in  it.  Here,  as  in  all  other 
teaching,  the  educational  effect  depends  on  the 
teacher  rather  than  the  subject.  There  is  little 
doubt  that  a  woman  with  cultivated  intelligence, 
the  gift  of  teaching,  and  the  all-important  ele- 
ment of  personality  can  obtain  excellent  educa- 
tional effect    from   teaching   the    domestic   arts, 


t6o     broad   lines   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

even  if  she  have  little  or  no  knowledofe  of 
science.  The  inculcation  of  neat  and  cleanly 
manipulation,  of  systematic  habits  of  work,  of 
resourcefulness,  of  the  adjustment  of  means  to 
ends,  of  thrift, — this  is  surely  of  eminent  educa- 
tional value  in  the  broad  and  vital  sense  of  the 
term.  The  habits  of  attention  and  thoughtful- 
ness,  it  is  found,  may  often  be  induced  by  means 
of  this  teaching  to  such  a  degree  that  girls  will 
return  with  a  greatly  improved  attitude  of  mind 
to  more  abstract  studies  which  have  previously 
failed  to  gain  any  hold  upon  them. 

It  is,  however,  the  case  that  the  whole  business 
of  housewifery  is  involved  with  science  and  the 
application  of  scientific  principles,  and  there  does 
indeed  exist  a  very  large  section  of  knowledge 
which  may  be  called  domestic  science.  This  is 
not  self-contained,  but  includes  the  application  of 
physics,  chemistry,  and  biology,  and  perhaps  other 
sciences. 

There  is  a  great  tendency  throughout  education 
for  the  maintenance  of  an  academic  convention,  in 
accordance  with  which  subjects  are  taught  in  a 
formal,  abstract,  and  isolated  manner  as  so  many 
chapters  of  knowledge.  The  possessor,  it  is  sup- 
posed, will  learn  to  make  the  application  which 
may  be  necessary  in  his  or  her  particular  calling. 
Experience  shows  that  this  kind  of  knowledge  is, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  apt  to  remain  permanently 
detached,  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  is  not  at  all 


DOMESTIC   SCIENCE  i6i 

easy  to  make  the  application,  and  that  there  lies 
between  general  principles  and  the  ordinary  things 
and  pursuits  of  life  a  great  body  of  intermediate 
knowledge  which  needs  careful  disclosing  and 
expounding. 

These  remarks  certainly  apply  to  the  science 
teaching  which  has  long  been  customary  in 
schools.  It  may  have  been  given  in  such  a  way 
as  to  have  conveyed  a  good  knowledge  of 
principles  and  facts  and  to  have  induced  the 
scientific  habit  of  mind,  yet  it  may  have  left  no 
obvious  links  for  its  attachment  to  practical  affairs. 
To  give  a  simple  example, — a  man  may  have 
learnt  a  great  deal  about  heat  and  chemistry  and 
be  quite  baffled  when  asked  to  explain  why  a 
plumber  uses  rosin  in  soldering  and  how  it  is 
that  solder  remains  pasty  while  he  wipes  a  joint 
with  it.  The  household  abounds  in  examples  of 
this  kind.  Questions  relating  to  the  quality  and 
uses  of  fuel,  the  construction  of  burners,  lamps, 
grates,  the  nature  of  detergents  and  the  explana- 
tion of  their  action,  paints,  lacquers,  sizes,  polish- 
ing agents,  and  a  hundred  other  things — on  these, 
pupils  who  have  ''done  "  a  good  deal  of  science, 
and  too  often  their  teachers  also,  may  be  in  a 
state  of  profound  ignorance  and  quite  unable  to 
help  themselves  to  knowledge.  It  is  not  easy 
for  any  one  who  has  not  given  a  good  deal  of 
thought  to  the  subject  and  has  not  been  ques- 
tioned by  classes  of  eager  housewifery  teachers 


i62     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

to  form  an  idea  of  the  number,  variety,  and  diffi- 
culty of  the  scientific  questions  that  arise  in  the 
commonest  household  matters. 

The  practical  value  of  a  knowledge  of  the 
science  connected  with  the  household  is  undeni- 
able. In  relation  to  hygiene  it  is  particularly  ob- 
vious, for  here  the  method  of  learning  by  making 
mistakes  is  perilous.  A  knowledge  of  the  scien- 
tific basis  of  hygiene,  involving  a  revelation  of  the 
connection  between  cause  and  effect,  is  infinitely 
more  persuasive  to  hygienic  practice  than  any 
amount  of  precept  or  admonition.  When  people 
can  say  '*  I  see  I  must  do  this  and  must  not  do 
that,"  they  are  in  a  totally  different  attitude  from 
those  who  say  **  I  am  told.''  In  this  and  other 
household  matters  let  any  one  observe  how  fre- 
quently practice  is  determined  by  the  vague  sanc- 
tion of  "  they  say."  In  no  other  sphere  of  human 
activity  is  individual  knowledge  and  judgment  so 
complacently  resigned  in  favour  of  drifting  tradi- 
tion and  nebulous  authority. 

Those  who  declare  that  women  will  become 
more  fit  for  their  work  by  learning  science  meet 
with  a  good  deal  of  banter,  and  facetious  remarks 
are  often  made  about  scientific  cookery.  Let  us 
admit  at  once  that  a  good  chef  is  not  a  product  of 
science  and  perhaps  cannot  be  equalled  in  his  art. 
At  the  same  time  any  one  who  has  taken  the 
trouble  to  look  into  the  matter  will  see  what  a 
vast  amount  of  trouble  and  error  may  be  saved 


DOMESTIC   SCIENCE  163 

even  in  cookery  by  the  application  of  scientific 
knowledge  and  by  the  scientific  attitude  of  mind. 
The  fact  is  that  the  household  abounds  with  the 
operations  of  applied  science  and  it  is  therefore 
prima  facie  probable  that  a  knowledge  of  this 
science  will  lead  to  greater  efficiency.  Apart, 
however,  from  all  this,  a  good  end  will  be  achieved 
if  the  work  of  the  household  is  made  more  inter- 
esting to  those  who  pursue  or  control  it.  There 
are  some  people — perhaps  many — who  are  per- 
fectly content  to  work  away  at  a  daily  routine  and 
ask  no  more  than  that  their  service  shall  be 
directed  to  some  good  end.  But  there  are  many 
others — especially  those  who  have  a  sharper 
mental  appetite — who  crave  for  intellectual  light 
to  illuminate  their  activity  and  cheer  them  on 
their  way.  It  is  surely  incumbent  upon  us  to 
provide  what  we  can  of  intellectual  interest  to 
accompany  the  exacting  work  of  the  household, 
and  for  this  reason,  if  for  no  other,  we  may  bring 
as  much  scientific  knowledge  as  we  can  into  the 
domain  of  the  housewife. 

Science  teaching  can  be  of  no  real  value  if  it 
does  not  impart  the  scientific  habit  of  mind  and 
give  the  pupil  a  knowledge  of  scientific  principles, 
and  it  cannot  do  this  unless  it  is  experimental. 
In  many  past  attempts  to  teach  a  domestic  science 
these  primary  facts  have  been  neglected.  There 
has  been,  for  example,  a  good  deal  of  hygiene 
teaching  which  has  consisted  in   making  pupils 


i64     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

remember  an  assortment  of  scientific  facts  dictated 
to  them  by  the  teacher,  sometimes  without  any 
kind  of  experimental  illustration.  The  outcome 
of  this  kind  of  teaching  of  hygiene  and  of  the 
science  of  cookery  or  laundry  work  has  been 
worse  than  valueless.  It  is,  however,  a  great 
mistake  to  suppose  that  the  teaching  of  facts 
relating  to  hygiene  and  other  household  matters 
is  inconsistent  with  the  inculcation  of  sound 
science,  and  it  is  the  chief  object  of  this  article  to 
plead  for  a  via  media  between  purely  academic 
science  and  the  medley  of  bald  information  which 
sometimes  passes  by  the  name  of  household 
science. 

It  is  possible  to  teach  the  principles  of  physics 
and  chemistry  from  many  points  of  view.  We 
teach  them  in  their  relation  to  facts  and  pheno- 
mena, but  the  facts  and  phenomena  that  illustrate 
these  principles  and  can  be  made  the  basis  of 
experimental  teaching  are  so  numerous  that  we 
must  make  a  selection.  Inasmuch  as  interest  is 
the  first  thing  to  be  secured  from  our  pupils,  we 
shall  do  wisely  to  go  as  far  as  we  can  to  choose 
our  ground  where  the  interests  of  our  pupils  lie, 
and  in  the  case  of  girls  the  realm  of  housewifery 
gives  us  what  we  want.  There  is  hardly  a  pupil 
who  has  learnt  anything  about  heat  who  has 
not  had  his  attention  drawn  to  the  circulation  of 
water  during  the  freezing  of  a  lake,  yet  it  is  only 
quite  recently  that  girls  have  ever  been  given  a 


DOMESTIC   SCIENCE  165 

notion  of  the  circulation  of  water  between  the 
cistern,  boiler,  and  cylinder  in  an  ordinary  hot- 
water  system.  It  is  very  easy  to  make  a  working 
model  of  such  a  system  out  of  ordinary  laboratory 
apparatus,  and  so  to  provide  an  excellent  experi- 
mental appliance  for  studying  many  of  the  funda- 
mental principles  and  facts  relating  to  heat. 
Experiments  with  thick  and  thin,  deep  and  shal- 
low pans,  pans  made  of  different  metals,  pans 
containing  liquids  of  different  viscidity  and  boil- 
ing-point ;  experiments  on  evaporation,  steaming, 
and  freezing — these  can  all  be  made  perfectly 
scientific,  and  yet  abounding  in  useful  information 
from  the  kitchen  standpoint.  In  chemistry  too 
it  is  not  difficult  to  bring  the  teaching  into  close 
relation  with  things  and  phenomena  of  the  house- 
hold. The  subject  of  combustion,  which  is  so 
central  and  fundamental,  may  be  made  to  involve 
the  action  of  heat  on  metals,  the  study  of  coal 
and  coal  gas,  and  the  appliances  connected  there- 
with. 

It  is  quite  true  that  there  are  a  great  many 
household  things  on  which  elementary  science 
will  tell  very  litde.  The  chemistry  of  food  and 
cookery  is  a  very  abstruse  subject,  and  it  is  use- 
less from  every  point  of  view  to  burden  pupils 
with  lore  about  albumens,  globulins,  caseinogens, 
and  the  other  terms  which  oftener  serve  to  con- 
ceal ignorance  than  to  display  real  knowledge. 
Yet  such  changes  as  fermentation  by  yeast  can 


i66     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

be  made  an  excellent  basis  of  experiment,  and 
in  this  particular  case  will  serve  to  give  some 
real  apprehension  of  the  facts  of  bacteriology. 
The  story  of  Pasteur's  life  and  work,  accompanied 
by  a  few  simple  experiments,  including  a  census 
of  the  germs  in  the  air  of  the  schoolroom,  makes 
as  impressive  and  valuable  a  lesson  in  scientific 
method  and  gives  knowledge  of  as  vital  import- 
ance as  anything  within  the  realm  of  science. 

Enough,  perhaps,  has  been  said  to  give  an 
idea  of  the  trend  of  what  might  be  fairly  called 
domestic  science.  An  admirable  syllabus  of  such 
a  course  drawn  up  by  Mr.  Heller  will  be  found 
appended  to  a  report  presented  last  year  to  the 
Education  Section  of  the  British  Association, 
and  from  this  teachers  who  are  disposed  to  turn 
their  attention  to  the  subject  will  get  the  best 
idea  of  the  way  in  which  they  may  set  to  work. 
In  this,  as  in  all  other  educational  innovations, 
tradition,  codes,  examinations,  and  the  desire  of 
overworked  or  half-hearted  teachers  for  ready- 
made  schemes  are  the  chief  obstacle  to  success. 
As  already  stated,  a  considerable  number  of  girls' 
schools  have  already  entered  upon  the  work  and, 
so  far  as  can  be  judged,  the  result  has  been  to 
give  a  greatly  increased  interest  and  value  to 
their  science  teaching. 


XIV 

THE   TEACHING  OF   CHEMISTRY   IN 
TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS^ 

By  henry  GARRETT,  B.Sc,  Ph.D. 

CHEMISTRY  is  at  present  taught  at 
the   university,  the   secondary  school, 
and  the  technical  school,  but   it  does 
not  follow  that  the  aim  of  the  instruc- 
tion in  all  three  institutions  is  the  same,  or  that 
the  methods  of  teaching  should  be  alike. 

In  the  university  the  object  is  to  give  students 
a  somewhat  detailed  survey  of  the  facts  in  so  far 
as  they  are  known  and  of  the  theories  by  which 
they  are  linked  together  and  explained.  The 
university  student  acquires  knowledge  for  its  own 
sake  and  investigates  truth  without  special  regard 
to  practical  applications.  All  knowledge  is,  no 
doubt,  useful,  potentially  at  least,  but  all  know- 
ledge is  not  equally  useful,  and  one  of  the  chief 
functions  of  the  teacher  of  technical  classes  is  to 
discriminate  between  the  useful  and  the  academic. 

*  In  this  and  the  following  two  papers  on  technical  aspects  of 
science  teaching  it  has  seemed  convenient  to  deal  with  work  partly 
outside  the  sphere  of  ordinary  secondary  education,  but  concerned 
with  students  mainly  of  secondary-school  age. — Ed. 

167 


i68     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

In  the  secondary  school  the  object  is  not  so 
much  to  teach  chemistry  as  to  use  the  subject  for 
the  cultivation  of  observation,  reasoning  power, 
and  systematic  habits.  Thus  the  aim  is  distinct 
from  that  of  the  university  and  the  method  em- 
ployed different. 

It  remains  to  show  how  the  object  of  the 
technical  school  differs  from  either  of  the  above 
and  what  means  may  best  be  taken  to  secure  that 
object.  In  order  to  arrive  at  a  satisfactory  con- 
clusion, several  factors  must  be  taken  into  ac- 
count. It  is  necessary  to  consider  who  the 
students  are,  why  they  attend,  and  what  time 
they  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  devote  to 
the  subject. 

With  regard  to  the  first  point,  it  will  generally 
be  found  that  the  students  may  be  roughly 
divided  into  three  groups : —    » 

(a)  Industrial  Students  :  viz.  those  en- 
gaged in  industries  of  a  distinctly  chemical 
nature,  such  as  analysts,  pharmaceutical  chem- 
ists, gas  workers,  bleachers,  dyers,  distillers, 
mineral-water  manufacturers,  vitriol  manu- 
facturers, artificial  -  manure  workers,  soap 
manufacturers,  and  employees  in  chemical  and 
electro-chemical  works. 

(d)  Teachers  of  primary  or  secondary 
schools  and  university  students. 

(c)  Artisan  Students  :  viz.  those  engaged 
in  occupations  not  distinctly  chemical  in  nature. 


CHEMISTRY   IN   TECHNICAL   SCHOOLS      169 

but  in  which  some  knowledge  of  chemistry  is 
desirable,  such  as  builders,  plumbers,  and  deco- 
rators. 

It  will  be  readily  granted  that  these  three 
groups  of  students  have  different  objects  in  view. 
They  have,  however,  this  much  in  common,  that 
they  all  attend  in  order  to  fit  themselves  better 
for  the  work  in  which  they  are  engaged.  Atten- 
dance being  entirely  voluntary,  it  would  be  vain 
to  expect  continued  attendance  from  a  student 
who  felt  that  he  was  not  obtaining  what  he  came 
for,  or  was  being  led  to  the  desired  goal  by  an 
unnecessarily  roundabout  path.  It  cannot  be  too 
strongly  emphasised  that  examination  certificates, 
while  of  considerable  value  for  intending  teachers, 
are  of  little  or  no  value  to  the  industrial  or  artisan 
student.  Moreover,  the  attempt  to  prepare  for 
examinations  often  leads  to  the  neglect  of  what  is 
most  useful  for  the  student,  and  to  the  considera- 
tion of  unessential  matter  necessary  for  the  ex- 
amination. The  evening  technical  school  is  by 
no  means  the  best  training-ground  for  teachers,  and 
it  would  be  a  fatal  mistake  to  arrange  the  course 
of  work  to  suit  the  needs  of  teachers  when  such 
a  course  is  unsuited  to  the  needs  of  industrial 
students.  In  so  far,  however,  as  the  teachers  can 
derive  benefit  by  attending  classes  arranged  for 
industrial  students  there  can  be  little  objection  to 
their  doing  so,  but  when  their  numbers  are  suffi- 
cient they  are  best  catered  for  by  special  classes. 


I70     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

The  main  point  to  be  borne  in  mind  is  that  the 
interests  of  the  more  properly  technical  students 
should  not  be  sacrificed  to  those  of  the  teachers, 
who  can  be  much  better  provided  for  otherwise. 

To  the  second  question — why  students  take 
chemistry — the  answer  will  be  different  for  the 
three  types  of  student  mentioned.  The  industrial 
student  requires  a  wider  and  deeper  knowledge 
of  the  application  of  chemistry  to  industry.  The 
teacher  desires  further  knowledge  and  additional 
qualifications  for  his  professional  work.  The 
artisan  student  needs  a  course  of  a  limited  and 
special  character  to  enable  him  to  deal  intelligently 
with  the  materials  he  uses.  The  industrial  and 
artisan  groups  require  separate  treatment  if  for  no 
other  reason  than  that  the  time  which  they  can 
give  to  the  study  differs  widely.  With  the  one 
chemistry,  in  its  various  branches,  is  a  special 
course  of  study,  with  the  other  it  is  a  subsidiary 
subject  and  should  be  treated  as  such. 

The  third  factor  in  the  problem  is  the  time  at 
the  disposal  of  the  student.  The  special  course 
for  chemical  industries  usually  extends  over  four 
years,  and  this  time  will  seldom  be  exceeded.  It 
is  thus  necessary  that  the  industrial  student  should 
have  a  course  drawn  up  for  him  on  the  assump- 
tion that  he  can  attend  from  four  to  five  hours  per 
week  for  four  years.  In  other  words,  this  course 
must  provide  for  his  wants  in  a  period  of  about 
500  hours'  instruction.     It  will  be  evident  that 


CHEMISTRY   IN   TECHNICAL   SCHOOLS      171 

such  students  cannot  afford  much  time  for  the 
consideration  of  facts  or  theories  which  have  Httle 
practical  bearing,  nor  can  they  follow  a  purely- 
educational  course  of  the  secondary- school  type. 
A  suitable  course  will  aim  not  only  at  giving  the 
student  a  sound  knowledge  of  the  chief  facts  and 
principles  of  chemistry  in  so  far  as  they  are  of 
practical  utility  and  a  special  knowledge  of  the 
chemistry  bearing  directly  upon  his  industry,  but 
will  also  teach  him  how  to  solve  by  experiment 
difficulties  arising  in  the  course  of  his  daily  work. 
The  syllabuses  usually  followed  at  present  are 
arranged  on  the  assumption  that  a  student  can 
give  at  least  one  evening  per  week  for  five  years 
to  inorganic  chemistry  alone.  Since  also  a  stu- 
dent could  not  profitably  begin  organic  chemistry 
in  his  first  year  of  specialisation,  he  is  required  to 
devote  a  second  evening  per  week  to  this  subject 
in  the  last  four  of  these  five  years.  There  are 
two  strong  objections  to  this  arrangement.  The 
first  is  that  the  course  not  only  uses  up  all  the 
time  presupposed  above,  but  makes  a  further 
demand  of  a  fifth  session,  and  this  without  allow- 
ing any  time  for  attendance  at  special  classes 
dealing  with  those  branches  of  the  subject  in 
which  the  student  is  more  particularly  interested. 
A  second  and  even  weightier  reason  against  the 
present  arrangement  is  that  the  syllabuses  fol- 
lowed are  of  an  academic  character.  Applied 
chemistry    occupies    an     altogether   subordinate 


172     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

position,  manufacturing  processes  are  generally 
not  reached  until  the  third  year,  and  a  very  large 
portion  of  the  available  time  is  spent  upon  test- 
tubing  and  analysis.  Qualitative  analysis  may 
or  may  not  form  part  of  the  requisite  course  for 
an  industrial  student,  but  for  the  majority  a 
limited  amount  should  suffice.  A  special  class 
dealing  exclusively  with  the  subject  will,  however, 
be  found  necessary  in  large  institutions  to  provide 
for  analysts  and  those  whose  work  bears  in  that 
direction. 

These  remarks  tend  to  show  that  the  present 
courses  are  too  ambitious  in  the  direction  of 
theoretical  and  analytical  chemistry,  and  ex- 
perience demonstrates  that  if  industrial  students  are 
to  be  really  catered  for  considerable  modifications 
in  our  present  system  are  necessary.  These  must 
go  in  the  direction  of  reducing  the  time  devoted 
to  inorganic  and  organic  chemistry  so  that  this 
portion  of  the  work  may  be  covered  in  one  even- 
ing of  two  and  a  half  to  three  hours  per  week  for 
four  years.  Further,  the  treatment  of  the  subject 
must  be  modified  and  an  effort  made  to  study  it 
in  connection  with  its  practical  applications. 

It  may  possibly  be  urged  that  applied  chemistry 
cannot  be  studied  with  advantage  until  the 
student  has  a  fairly  comprehensive  knowledge  of 
pure  chemistry.  If  we  apply  the  same  reasoning 
to  other  subjects,  such  as  mathematics,  its  absurdity 
will  be  at  once  evident.     The  student  of  practical 


CHEMISTRY    IN   TECHNICAL   SCHOOLS      173 

mathematics  would  be  in  sad  case  if  he  were  un- 
able to  take  up  his  special  work  until  he  had 
completed  the  study  of  pure  mathematics.  There 
is  no  adequate  reason  why  chemistry  should  not 
be  studied  from  the  very  beginning  in  connection 
with  its  industrial  applications.  Nor  should  it  be 
forgotten  that  the  student  under  consideration  is 
more  familiar  with  certain  applications,  at  least, 
than  with  underlying  principles.  Educationally, 
therefore,  the  procedure  advocated,  viz.  from  the 
familiar  to  the  unfamiliar,  is  sound. 

An  attempt  will  now  be  made  to  indicate  an 
arrangement  of  subjects  for  industrial  students 
which  it  is  considered  will  be  likely  to  lead  to 
good  results.  These  courses  are  intended  for 
earnest  students  who  are  willing  and  able  to 
devote  two  evenings  per  week  to  the  requisite 
study  spread  over  a  period  of  four  years. 

In  the  first  year,  students  would  be  well 
advised  to  take  physics  or  mathematics  in 
addition  to  chemistry. 

In  the  second  year  of  specialisation  they 
should  continue  inorganic  chemistry  and  take 
in  addition  a  special  class  suitable  to  their 
occupation,  such  as  technical  analysis,  chemical 
engineering,  bleaching  and  dyeing,  gas  manu- 
facture, or  acid  and  alkali  manufacture. 

In  the  third  year  they  should  take  organic 
chemistry  and  one  of  the  special  classes  already 
mentioned,  or  certain  new  classes  suited  to  the 


174     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

needs  of  the  district,  such  as  the  chemistry  of 
foods,  paper  manufacture,  electro-chemistry,  etc., 
or  a  second  stage  of  such  larger  subjects  as 
bleaching  and  dyeing  and  technical  analysis. 

In  the  fourth  year  a  treatment  of  the  benzene 
derivatives  should  be  undertaken  and  the  other 
elements  of  a  course  made  up  from  the  subjects 
already  mentioned. 

Needless  to  say,  the  organisation  here  outlined 
is  only  possible  in  a  large  institution,  but  even 
where  the  staff  is  limited,  sound  and  useful  work 
may  be  done  by  not  attempting  more  than  two 
or  three  years  of  the  course  and  sending  on 
advanced  students  to  a  larger  institution.  The 
underlying  idea  is  that  a  chemistry  class  should 
be  taken  in  each  year,  together  with  one  or  more 
classes  of  a  special  character. 

In  the  central  chemistry  class  the  treatment  of 
the  subject  should  involve  at  every  point  a 
consideration  of  the  application  of  laboratory 
methods  to  industrial  practice.  Such  a  course 
might  naturally  begin  with  a  description  of  the 
mechanical  processes  used  in  chemistry — filtra- 
tion, distillation,  decantation,  evaporation,  crys- 
tallisation, etc.  These  descriptions  should  show 
not  only  the  methods  used  in  the  laboratory,  but 
also  the  principal  modifications  of  those  used  in 
chemical  engineering.  The  lectures  should  be 
illustrated  by  experiments  and  by  slides  showing 
the  plant  used  for  industrial  purposes,  while  the 


CHEMISTRY   IN   TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS      175 

laboratory  work  would  take  the  form  of  practical 
exercises  illustrating  the  processes  dealt  with. 
Following  upon  this  work  might  come  a  con- 
sideration of  oxidation  and  combustion.  This 
part  of  the  subject  would  be  illustrated  by 
numerous  exercises  on  the  rusting  of  iron,  the 
oxidation  of  metals,  phosphorus,  carbon,  etc.,  on 
heating,  leading  to  an  examination  of  the  Bunsen 
burner  with  its  many  applications — incandescent 
mantles,  blowpipe,  oxyhydrogen  blowpipe,  and 
oxyacetylene  blowpipe.  The  importance  of  the 
subject  of  high  temperatures  is  so  great  from  an 
industrial  point  of  view  that  it  will  be  well  at 
this  stage  to  consider  as  fully  as  possible  the 
chemical  means  at  our  disposal  of  obtaining  high 
temperatures.  Incidentally,  the  chief  constituents 
of  the  atmosphere  will  receive  consideration  and 
a  study  of  oxygen  be  undertaken.  To  complete 
this  branch  of  the  work  electrical  methods  of 
heating  will  require  attention.  The  converse 
process  of  reduction  of  oxides  by  hydrogen  or 
coal  gas  will  provide  much  useful  information, 
while  the  use  of  carbon  for  the  same  purpose  in 
metallurgical  processes,  such  as  the  extraction  of 
zinc  and  iron  from  their  ores,  as  well  as  the 
numerous  reductions  in  the  electric  oven,  will 
open  a  wide  field  for  investigation. 

Next  in  importance  to  heat  as  an  agent  in 
producing  chemical  change  come  probably  the 
common    acids.     Their    physical   and   chemical 


176     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

properties  should  be  carefully  studied,  as  well  as 
their  methods  of  manufacture.  It  might  be  well 
at  this  point  to  introduce  a  description  of  some 
of  the  more  important  contact  actions,  such  as 
the  platinum  method  of  manufacturing  sulphuric 
acid,  as  these  actions  are  rapidly  becoming  highly 
useful  commercially.  Following  upon  such  work 
will  naturally  come  the  large  class  of  double 
decompositions,  which  take  place  when  certain 
substances  are  heated  together,  or  when  solutions 
are  mixed  together.  The  way  is  also  open  for  an 
examination  of  the  alkalis  and  their  reactions,  in 
particular  their  power  of  neutralising  acids. 

It  is  not  proposed  to  carry  such  a  course 
further  here.  Sufficient  has  been  said  to  indi- 
cate the  general  line  which  it  may  take.  It 
may  be  urged  that  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
chemistry  cannot  be  had  without  close  attention 
to  chemical  hypotheses,  but  while  certain  theo- 
retical considerations  are  necessary  for  a  clear 
understanding  of  the  process  studied,  many 
others  are  of  purely  academic  interest  and  may 
well  be  omitted. 

The  practical  work  of  the  classes  should  keep 
closely  in  touch  with  that  done  in  the  lecture- 
room,  and  the  exercises  should  be  designed  to 
amplify  and  intensify  the  impressions  there  made. 

Artisan  students  may  be  catered  for  in  two 
ways.  A  short  series  of  lessons  on  the  chemistry 
of  the  materials  which  the  artisan  makes  use  of 


CHEMISTRY   IN   TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS      177 

may  be  incorporated  into  his  course  of  building 
construction,  plumbing,  or  painter's  work,  as  the 
case  may  be.  These  lessons  should  be  largely 
demonstrational  and  should  deal  with  the  chemi- 
cal properties  and  reactions  of  building  materials 
or  of  common  metals,  but  they  may  also  with 
advantage  involve  simple  practical  exercises. 

Such  a  series  of  lessons  need  not  extend  over 
more  than  half  a  session,  the  other  half  being 
devoted  to  the  necessary  physics.  Where 
separate  teachers  are  engaged  for  chemistry 
and  physics  it  should  not  be  difficult  to  arrange 
for  simultaneous  courses  for  builders  and  plumbers 
or  painters,  the  teachers  interchanging  classes  at 
half-term. 

An  alternative  method  would  be  possible  in 
cases  where  the  entries  for  a  preparatory  course 
are  sufficiently  large  to  admit  of  the  segregation 
of  members  of  particular  trades  into  separate 
classes.  In  such  cases  the  science  teaching  of 
the  preparatory  course  should  take  the  form 
above  outlined. 

The  greatest  difficulty  will  be  experienced  by 
small  schools  where  chemistry  classes  are  com- 
posed of  students  of  a  mixed  type ;  but,  by 
limiting  the  course  to  the  elementary  stages,  and 
by  studying  the  needs  of  the  class,  teachers  can 
do  much  to  rescue  the  subject  from  its  present 
marked  theoretical  and  academic  rut  and  to  make 
it  full  of  interest  and  usefulness. 


XV 

HOW  THE   SCHOOL   MAY   HELP 
AGRICULTURE 

By  E.  W.   read,   M.A. 

PRACTICE  with  Science"  is  the  motto 
of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of 
England,  and  gallant  have  been  the 
attempts  of  this  and  the  sister  society 
of  Scotland  to  bring  home  to  the  agriculturist 
the  importance  of  science  to  him,  while  in  Ireland 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Technical 
Instruction  has  been  working  miracles  in  recent 
years. 

The  splendid  work  of  the  agricultural  colleges, 
often  done  under  great  difficulties,  and  in  the 
face  of  opposition,  has  made  its  influence  felt  all 
over  the  country,  and  it  is  confidently  expected 
that  the  next  generation  will  see  the  great  in- 
dustry of  agriculture  established  on  a  scientific 
basis.  There  are,  however,  many  whose  occupa- 
tions are  directly  connected  with  agriculture  who 
are  doubtful  of  the  value  of  science,  though  a 
very  slight  examination  into  the  methods  adopted 
by  a  successful  farmer  suffices  to  show  that  he 

178 


HOW  THE  SCHOOL  MAY  HELP  AGRICULTURE   179 

is  in  the  true  sense  a  man  of  science.  No  doubt 
he  will  tell  you  that  an  ounce  of  practice  is  worth 
a  pound  (or  a  ton)  of  theory,  meaning  that  the 
results  of  his  own  and  his  forbears'  experiences  as 
to  the  best  seasons  for  sowing  and  reaping  and 
the  rules  to  be  observed  in  breeding  and  feeding 
stock  are  more  likely  to  give  him  a  balance  at 
the  bank  than  any  amount  of  lectures  or  reading. 

In  other  words,  keen  observation  and  many 
failures  have  taught  him  what  not  to  do — how  to 
get  at  the  truth.  This  is  science.  The  student 
of  pure  science,  however,  wishes  to  get  at  the 
truth,  and  does  not  mind  the  cost  in  time  and 
money,  whereas  the  farmer  must  make  most  of 
his  exi)eriments  pay.  One  would  think  that  the 
farmer  would  be  very  grateful  to  the  scientist 
who  is  willing  to  assist  in  reducing  the  chances 
of  failure,  but  it  must  be  admitted  that  in  Britain 
we  have  not  yet  found  the  true  relationship  be- 
tween agricultural  practice  and  science.  It  will 
only  be  found  when  education  of  the  right  kind 
is  provided  for  the  coming  generation  of  farmers. 

The  recognition  of  the  value  of  science  by 
the  farmer  has  been  delayed  through  the  action 
of  people  who,  having  a  slight  knowledge  of 
chemistry,  biology,  or  geology,  or  having  visited 
other  lands  and  seen  one  side  of  the  methods 
adopted  there,  essay  to  teach  him  how  to  double 
his  income.  The  weather,  the  district,  labour, 
freights,  taxes  are  nothing  to  these  people,  and 


i8o     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING  j 

the  farmer  blames  science  generally,  instead  of    \ 
the  want  of  practice.  \ 

Again,  the  reputation  of  education  has  suffered, 
and  in  the  eyes  of  the  farmer  the  child  is  being  | 
spoiled.  The  fact  is  that  the  education  given  in  - 
country  schools  in  Britain  at  the  present  time  is  \ 
not  calculated  to  increase  the  child's  respect  for  \ 
rural  life.  Too  much  is  made  of  the  academic  ; 
side,  and  by  the  time  the  age  of  fourteen  is  j 
reached,  the  boy  is  out  of  touch  with  all  kinds  j 
of  manual  work,  and  the  girl,  though  she  may  | 
find  it  necessary  to  go  into  service,  has  no  ambition  \ 
to  make  herself  a  good  housekeeper.  If  the 
advantages  of  town  life  to  the  people  themselves  I 
and  to  the  nation  were  beyond  dispute,  nothing  i 
need  be  said ;  but  it  seems  unwise  to  encourage  ! 
young  folks  to  go  to  towns,  where  they  will 
jostle  for  a  pittance,  and  then  to  suggest  that  i 
those  out  of  work  should  go  back  to  the  land.  j 

Educational  authorities  are  partly  responsible, 
as  until  quite  recently  they  allowed,  and  perhaps  ^ 
indirectly  encouraged,  country  schools  to  follow  j 
the  lead  of  the  town  schools,  and  thus  it  has  j 
come  about  that  the  term  *'lad  of  parts"  can  i 
only  be  applied  to  the  boy  who  is  ''good  at  his  : 
books.''  I 

This  paper  is  to  deal  with  the  education  of  the  i 
future  small  farmer  and  the  agricultural  labourer,  ; 
leaving  the  large  farmer  to  take  care  of  himself,  i 
Many  attempts  have  been  made  in  Great  Britain    ; 


HOW  THE  SCHOOL  MAY  HELP  AGRICULTURE   i8i 

and  Ireland  to  provide  in  special  schools  a  form 
of  education  which  would  assist  the  farmer  to 
cope  with  changing  conditions,  but  they  have 
only  affected  a  fraction  of  those  concerned  in 
agriculture.  Farmers  themselves  are  to  a  great 
extent  to  blame  for  this,  as  they  have  certainly 
received  obviously  genuine  efforts  with  coldness, 
and  even  experimental  farms  have  met  with 
active  opposition.  To  argue  that  they  know 
what  they  want  and  should  be  left  alone  to  work 
out  their  own  salvation  might  be  well  enough  if 
it  concerned  farmers  themselves  only  ;  but  it  is, 
in  fact,  a  national  affair,  and  we  must  not  allow 
other  countries  to  outdistance  us  in  the  matter  of 
agricultural  education. 

It  is  not  suggested  that  the  qualities  which  go 
to  make  a  successful  farmer  can  be  got  in  the 
class-room,  or  in  the  laboratory,  or  by  reading. 
He  must  be  a  man  of  character ;  possessing 
initiative  ;  able  to  manage  workmen  ;  be  a  good 
judge  of  stock — know  the  right  kind  of  store 
animals  for  his  district,  know  when  they  are 
doing  well  and  how  to  change  pastures  when  they 
are  not ;  he  must  be  a  good  marketer,  and  know 
the  true  value  of  his  fat  stock  and  grain  as  well 
as  does  the  dealer  ;  and  he  must  be  a  business 
man.  Education  cannot  save  the  farmer  if  he 
does  not  possess  these  qualities,  but  it  can  help 
the  boy,  by  widening  his  outlook,  by  encouraging 
him    to    take   a    pride   in   his  occupation    and   a 


i82     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

pleasure  in  manual  work,  by  developing  initiative 
and  observational  powers,  and  by  calling  his 
attention  to  the  necessity  for  cultivating  to  the 
highest  extent  the  qualities  mentioned  above. 

The  spirit  of  the  farm  must  be  retained  in  the 
child,  and  afterwards  he  must  have  scope  for  his 
abilities.  The  labourer  must  be  encouraged  to 
take  an  interest  in  the  work  of  the  farm,  and  he 
will  do  so  if  he  knows  that  he  may  one  day  have 
a  small  holding,  and  has  confidence  that  he  will 
be  able  to  manage  it. 

Having  indicated  the  results  to  be  aimed  at, 
the  next  thing  is  to  show  how  they  might  be 
attained.  We  cannot  look  for  assistance  to  the 
ordinary  agricultural  schools  or  to  the  agricul- 
tural sides  of  certain  secondary  schools.  They 
do  good  work  in  the  preliminary  education  of  the 
larger  farmer,  the  agricultural  lecturer,  and  those 
concerned  in  estate  management,  but  we  want  to 
get  lower  down  and  to  influence  a  much  greater 
number. 

Can,  then,  the  elementary  schools  or  the 
higher  grade  departments  of  the  public  schools 
in  Scotland  help  ?  Certainly  they  might  do  so  ; 
but  they  have  become  so  imbued  with  the 
academic  spirit  that  the  spirit  of  the  farm  is 
neutralised  and  the  pupil  of  fourteen  has  de- 
veloped into  a  young  scholar  instead  of  being 
a  young  farmer  at  heart.  In  recent  years  these 
schools  have  certainly  tried  to  meet  the  require- 


HOW  THE  SCHOOL  MAY  HELP  AGRICULTURE  183 

ments  of  the  country  boy  by  giving  some  atten- 
tion to  nature-study,  and  in  some  counties  by 
making  the  arithmetic  of  a  more  practical  nature  ; 
but  they  must  go  much  further  than  this  or  we 
must  have  special  schools.  In  all  probability  it 
will  be  found  necessary  to  provide  such  special 
schools  for  boys  of  twelve,  at  which  they  could 
follow  a  two  or  three  years'  course,  the  object  of 
which  should  be  to  benefit  directly  the  small 
farmer  and  the  labourer.  The  country  boy,  it 
must  be  remembered,  should  have  special  treat- 
ment :  he  needs  a  form  of  education  entirely 
different  from  that  given  to  the  town  boy. 

The  teachers  in  these  schools  must  be  trained 
specially  for  the  work,  and  they  must  be  in  entire 
sympathy  with  their  surroundings.  They  must 
be  as  much  farmers  as  teachers.  They  need  not 
be  university  men  ;  in  fact,  it  would  be  better  if 
they  were  not,  unless  they  had  worked  on  a  farm 
for  two  or  three  years  after  attending  at  an 
agricultural  college  for  two  years.  Eventually 
agricultural  teachers'  training  colleges  would 
have  to  be  instituted,  and  these  might  be  in 
connection  with  the  agricultural  college  experi- 
mental farms. 

The  teachers  would  aim  at  producing  good 
farmers,  foresters,  or  gardeners  rather  than  ex- 
amination-passing machines.  The  farm-schools 
would  not  necessarily  cost  a  great  deal  for  up- 
keep, as  the  pupils  would  do  much  of  the  work 


1 84     BROAD  LINES    IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

in  connection  with  them.  The  question  of  cost, 
however,  would  have  to  be  faced  ;  and  as  it 
has  been  faced  in  other  countries,  there  is  surely 
no  good  reason  why  we  should  find  it  an  in- 
superable difficulty.  It  seems  as  if  these  other 
countries  are  building  up  a  business  and  spare  no 
pains  to  push  their  wares,  while  Great  Britain 
rests  content  with  the  idea  that  she  runs  (or  did 
run)  a  paying  concern,  and  will  not  believe  that 
it  is  necessary  to  go  to  any  expense  to  hold  her 
own  in  the  competition. 

Now  as  to  the  curriculum  of  our  farm -school. 
English,  with  history  and  geography,  would 
occupy  a  very  important  position,  as  would 
mathematics  and  elementary  science ;  and  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  time  should  be  given  to 
manual  instruction  and  natural  history. 

Under  the  term  natural  history  would  be  in- 
cluded botany,  zoology,  and  geology  as  applied 
to  farming,  gardening,  and  forestry  ;  work  in  the 
gardens  and  on  the  farm  ;  the  care  of  horses, 
cattle,  sheep,  pigs,  fowls,  bees,  etc. ;  expeditions 
in  the  woods  or  on  the  hills ;  visits  to  larger 
farms  or  to  experimental  farms ;  the  study  of 
agricultural  experiments,  and  meteorological  ob- 
servations. 

The  object  of  the  work  on  the  farm  would  be 
not  so  much  to  teach  operations  as  to  keep  the 
boys  in  touch  with  farm  ways  and  to  provide 
subjects  for  discussion  in  the  class-room.     The 


HOW  THE  SCHOOL  MAY  HELP  AGRICULTURE  185 

farm  need  not  be  large,  but  there  should  be  a 
large  garden,  which,  of  course,  the  boys  could 
lay  out  in  the  first  place. 

The  elementary  science  should  be  correlated 
with  the  natural  history,  the  substances  used  for 
experiments  being,  as  far  as  possible,  those  which 
are  of  special  interest  to  the  farmer. 

The  manual  instruction  would  primarily  be 
educational,  but  in  the  third  year  the  boy  might 
learn  to  make  modern  fowl-houses  and  bee-hives, 
troughs,  etc.,  put  up  and  repair  fences,  and  study 
farm  machinery.  This  is  not  the  place  to  enter 
into  details  with  regard  to  English  and  mathe- 
matics, but  so  far  from  their  being  neglected  they 
would  receive  more  attention  than  they  get  in 
many  secondary  schools.  It  will  be  seen  that  in 
such  a  school  the  future  forester  and  the  future 
gardener  might  well  receive  part  of  their  educa- 
tion. 

Next,  what  happens  to  the  boy  when  he  leaves  ? 
He  is,  say,  fifteen  years  of  age,  is  not  afraid  of 
manual  work,  is  trustworthy  and  possesses  initia- 
tive, is  ambitious  to  excel  in  some  occupation 
connected  with  the  country,  and  is  anxious  to 
learn  more  about  his  future  work.  If  his  father 
is  a  farmer  he  might  go  home  ;  he  might  take 
up  forestry  or  gardening  ;  or  he  might  be  appren- 
ticed to  a  farmer.  How  this  is  to  be  brought 
about  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  paper,  but  it 
is  the  opinion  of  the  writer  that  with  the  co- 


i86     BROAD   LINES   IN  SCIENCE  TEACHING 

operation  of  farmers  it  is  quite  possible,  and  that 
the  farmer  himself  would  find  one  or  two  appren- 
tices of  this  type  a  great  acquisition  in  these 
days  when  conscientious  workmen  are  compara- 
tively scarce.  Of  course  at  this  stage  the  boy 
would  attend  evening  classes  where  possible,  and 
he  would  still  be  under  the  eye  of  the  authority 
which  managed  the  school.  In  Scotland  the 
authority  would  probably  be  a  School  Board 
(under  the  Scotch  Education  Department  work- 
ing in  conjunction  with  an  agricultural  college), 
which  would  under  ordinary  circumstances  in- 
terest itself  in  the  boy's  career  until  he  is  seven- 
teen. In  England  conditions  are  somewhat 
different,  and  perhaps  the  County  Councils  would 
co-operate  with  the  Board  of  Agriculture  and 
work  out  schemes  suitable  to  the  needs  of  the 
various  districts.  Whatever  the  authority  may 
be,  it  is  hoped  that  it  will  study  the  special  needs 
of  the  different  districts  and  see  that  State  aid  is 
given  without  tying  down  all  the  schools  to  a 
particular  curriculum.  There  must  be  an  agree- 
ment between  the  authorities  and  the  agricul- 
turist as  to  the  ideal  to  be  aimed  at,  and  they 
must  take  care  that  the  school  is  run  for  the  sake 
of  the  boy  as  a  future  farmer  and  a  valuable  asset 
of  the  State,  and  that  it  is  not  neglected  because 
its  value  cannot  be  appraised  by  means  of  ex- 
amination results. 

Nothing  has  been  said  in  this  article  about 


HOW  THE  SCHOOL  MAY  HELP  AGRICULTURE   187 

the  education  of  the  country  girl — not  because 
its  importance  is  overlooked,  but  because  it  is  so 
important  that  it  deserves  a  paper  to  itself.  The 
chances  of  success  of  the  small  farm  are  doubled 
if  the  mistress  is  a  good  manager  and  takes  an 
active  interest  in  dairying,  poultry-keeping,  and 
gardening. 


XVI 


ENGINEERING 

By  an  associate  OF  THE  INSTITUTION  OF 
CIVIL  ENGINEERS 

IN  attempting  to  deal  with  the  sort  of  educa- 
tion that  should  be  given  to  future  engineers 
during  their  time  at  school,  one  feels  at  once 
the  need  of  subdividing  into  classes.  At  one 
extreme  we  have  the  boy  who  will  go  to  the 
public  school  and  university,  and  finally  take 
a  position  among  what  we  may  call  the  **  directing 
classes  "  of  the  country  ;  at  the  other  extreme  there 
is  the  boy  who  spends  the  years  between  thirteen 
and  sixteen — when  he  enters  works  as  apprentice 
— as  a  wage-earner. 

The  following  division  into  classes  will  serve 
our  purpose  : — 


A 

B 

Those  taking 
a  full  Secondary 
School    Course 
and   (probably) 
University 
Course  in  addi- 
tion. 

Those  not  taking  a  University  Course, 
including — 

I 

II 

Those    who,    after 
attending  an  ele- 
mentary   school, 
receive     some 
secondary     edu- 
cation up  to  about 
sixteen  years. 

Those    who    leave 
the     elementary 
school     at    thir- 
teen or  fourteen, 
and  do   not    at- 
tend a  secondary 
school. 

[88 


ENGINEERING  189 

We  shall  take  Group  1 1  first.  The  would-be 
engineers  who  fall  under  Group  II  are  somewhat 
difficult  to  deal  with.  The  type  of  boy  who  is 
intended  for  an  engineer  varies  so  much  in  different 
parts  of  the  country.  The  parents  of  such  boys  are 
generally  artisans  or  are  employed  in  commercial 
offices  ;  and  the  five  or  six  shillings  a  week  which 
such  a  boy  may  earn  in  some  temporary  position 
is  in  some  cases  an  important  item  in  the  weekly 
house-budget ;  and  in  other  cases,  although  the 
sum  earned  is  not  necessary,  yet  the  parents 
prefer  to  consider  slight  additional  comforts  rather 
than  the  prospects  of  the  boy.  Group  1 1  may  thus 
be  divided  into  two  sub-groups  : — 

11^.  Those  who  are  given  the  opportunity  of 
staying  at  school  until  they  are  old  enough 
to  enter  the  shops. 

11^.  Those  who  are  sent  to  earn  money  as 
messengers, errand-boys,  etc.,  from  thirteen 
or  fourteen  to  sixteen  years  of  age. 

With  regard  to  II<^  :  The  boy  at  the  age  of 
thirteen,  recently  freed  from  the  sometimes  dull 
monotony  of  an  elementary  school,  and  with  a 
sense  of  importance  in  that  he  is  earning  an  in- 
come, is  not  inclined  to  continue  his  studies  in 
the  evenings  (probably  the  only  time  available). 
Again,  should  he  be  working  in  a  factory — 
making  cardboard  boxes,  or  occupied  in  one  of 
the  other  hundred  ways  in  which  cheap  labour 


I90     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

can  be  utilised — he  may  be  at  any  time  called 
upon  to  work  late  ;  and  so,  should  he  put  down 
his  name  for  classes,  his  attendance  is  likely  to 
be  irregular,  in  which  case  his  interest  in  the 
matter  will  naturally  dwindle.  There  can  be 
little  doubt  among  those  who  have  dealt  with 
apprentices  and  young  workmen  engaged  in  the 
shops,  that  those  who  belong  to  this  section  make 
a  bad  start ;  and  that  the  three  important  years 
between  thirteen  and  sixteen  should  not  be  spent 
in  casual  employment  but  in  continuing  the  boy's 
education. 

This  naturally  leads  us  to  consider  the  section 
\\a,  and  to  enquire  what  courses  lie  open  to 
boys  when  the  elementary  school  has  been  passed 
through.  Putting  aside  the  secondary  school, 
which  we  shall  consider  under  I,  the  choice  lies 
between  higher  elementary  schools  and  pre- 
apprentice  schools. 

Should  the  boy  enter  a  school  of  the  former  sort, 
he  will  attend  a  course  of  which  the  syllabus 
covers  not  more  than  three  years — a  course  prob- 
ably of  a  general  character,  without  bias  towards 
engineering.  It  is,  indeed,  stated  somewhere 
that  the  course  may  be  especially  directed  to 
train  students  for  a  local  industry ;  but  the 
atmosphere  of  the  elementary  school  is  often 
present,  and  the  teachers  unsuited  to  give  such 
particular  instruction. 

The  other  course  is  to  enter  a  pre-apprentice 


ENGINEERING  191 

school — a  school  sometimes  called  by  other  names, 
such  as  '*  Trade  School,"  **  Preparatory  Trade 
School,"  '*  Junior  Technical  School."  This  type 
has  only  in  the  last  few  years  taken  a  recognised 
place  among  our  educational  institutions ;  and 
papers  of  much  interest  on  this  subject  will  be 
found  in  a  recent  work  edited  by  Prof.  Sadler.^ 

We  shall  discuss,  in  some  detail,  the  curricula 
of  such  schools  for  engineers^ — feeling  as  we  do 
that  such  schools  are  not  so  well  known  as  are 
those  of  higher  elementary  or  secondary  type. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  subject  in  the 
curriculum  is  English — the  standard  of  English 
among  the  boys  we  are  considering  is  notoriously 
low.  Mathematics  must  have  much  attention ; 
drawing — freehand, geometrical,  and  scale — claims 
an  undoubted  place.  Practical  work,  both  in  wood 
or  metal,  is  desirable,  as  is  also  experimental 
mechanics.  At  first  sight,  perhaps,  too  ' '  practical " 
a  course  of  work ;  and  the  educationist  may 
denounce  it  as  utilitarian  ;  but  the  writer  ventures 
to  think  such  a  curriculum  may  have  very  great 
value,  both  educational  and  utilitarian. 

The  English  lessons  would  include  history 
and    geography ;    the   geography    would    natur- 

^  Continuation  Schools  in  England  and  Elsewhere.  Manchester 
University  Press,  1907. 

2  Although  the  present  article  has  reference  only  to  the  training 
of  engineers,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  schools  of  this  type  are 
equally  suited  to  students  who  intend  to  enter  other  trades  or  pro- 
fessions where  certain  technical  training  is  desirable. 


192     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

ally  have  a  commercial  bent,  a  form  in  which 
it  may  still  have  distinct  educational  as  well  as 
practical  value.  Composition  must  be  taught, 
and  can  be  well  correlated  with  the  other  English 
subjects  or  with  mechanics.  Composition  is  of 
much  greater  importance  to  the  young  engineer 
than  he  is  inclined  to  think  ;  and  very  great 
care  and  trouble  is  required,  especially  in  the 
first  year  or  two  of  such  a  course,  to  ensure 
that  students  shall  learn  to  express  themselves 
intelligibly. 

Mathematics,  as  taught  in  the  schools,  con- 
sidered, should  be  of  a  very  practical  type,  and 
closely  related  both  to  the  drawing  and  the 
mechanic's  work.  It  may  be  found  possible  in 
the  third  year  to  give  some  knowledge  of  the 
elements  of  the  calculus. 

The  drawing  should  be  connected  with  both 
the  wood  and  metal  work,  as  well  as  with  the 
mathematics ;  and  it  will  crop  up  as  curve-plotting 
in  other  places  as  well. 

No  mention  has  been  made  in  the  above 
curriculum  of  any  language  but  English ;  for  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  course  extends  at 
most  over  three  years,  and  that  the  type  of 
student  for  whom  it  is  intended  is  often  so  defi- 
cient in  English  that  all  available  time  must  be 
given  to  the  mother  tongue.  Those  engineering 
employers  and  works-managers  who  think  of  the 
mechanic  as  something  more  than  a  mere  machine 


ENGINEERING 


193 


will  acknowledge  that  his  average  power  of 
description  calls  for  much  improvement. 

Practical  wood  and  metal  work,  aiming  at  hand 
and  eye  training,  should  be  begun,  but  should  not 
take  up  a  large  part  of  the  time ;  later,  in  the  shops, 
a  boy  may  learn  more  of  turning  and  fitting  in  two 
months  than  in  a  year  at  school.  That  employers 
are  sometimes  glad  to  get  a  partly  trained  ap- 
prentice must  not  weigh  with  us  too  much  ; 
employers  are  not  mainly  concerned  with  the 
needs  of  the  individual  worker. 

Subjects  not  here  mentioned  may  no  doubt  be 
found  a  place  in  the  course  of  the  pre-apprentice 
school  ;  the  main  object  must  always  be  to  give 
the  best  general  education  possible — education 
with  an  engineering  bias,  but  not  intended  to 
replace  the  apprentice-time.  Some  such  school 
will,  we  hope,  commend  itself,  both  to  engineers 
and  teachers,  as  best  for  those  who  leave  the 
primary  school  at  thirteen  and  at  sixteen  enter 
works. 

We  may  now  say  a  word  about  those  in  Group 
I  of  the  table,  who,  after  attending  an  elementary 
school,  leave  at  thirteen,  or  perhaps  twelve,  and 
attend  a  secondary-school  course  for  three  or  four 
years.  This  procedure  is  much  more  common 
than  formerly,  on  account  of  the  rapid  growth 
in  the  number  of  secondary  schools  through- 
out England ;  and  the  very  low  fees  charged 
have  removed  one  of  the  great  obstacles  which 
o 


194     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

prevented  lads  of  certain  social  grades  from 
attending  such  schools.  Indeed,  with  the  help 
of  scholarships,  municipal  or  otherwise,  and  ''free 
places,"  a  boy  of  average  ability  from  an  elemen- 
tary school  should  seldom  be  debarred  admittance 
to  a  secondary  school — of  a  certain  type.  When 
the  would-be  engineer  enters  a  secondary  school, 
he  is  placed  with  his  feet  on  the  lower  steps  of 
an  educational  course  extending  over  at  least 
four  years-^in  many  cases  to  eighteen  years  of 
age  ;  but  should  the  boy  have  come  from  an 
elementary  school  at  thirteen,  he  can  probably  stay 
only  some  three  years  at  the  secondary  school, 
and  he  will  so  profit  much  less  than  by  following 
the  whole  course.  He  will  learn  history  and 
geography,  mathematics  of  an  elementary  type, 
some  French,  perhaps  Latin,  and  a  second 
modern  language.  Chemistry  and  physics  he 
may  have;  and  ''organised  games"  will  take 
away  part  of  his  time.  Yet,  with  all  these  sub- 
jects, each  one  perhaps  so  admirable  in  itself,  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  at  sixteen  the  workshop 
will  claim  him  ;  and  many  of  the  branches  which 
he  has  begun  to  study  will  be  neglected  and  for- 
gotten. The  shorter  the  time  available,  the  less 
likely  is  a  secondary-school  course  to  be  profit- 
able, and  the  more  we  look  towards  special  schools 
of  the  pre-apprentice  type  to  solve  the  problems. 

At  all  events  it  is  good  to  decide  one  way  or 
the  other.     The  writer  has  heard  of  lads  leaving 


ENGINEERING 


195 


the  elementary  school  at  twelve  years  of  age, 
attending  the  secondary  school  until  fourteen, 
and  then  taking  a  course  of  work  at  a  technical 
institution  until  sixteen.  The  evils  of  this  con- 
tinual uprooting  and  replanting  are  too  obvious 
to  need  discussion. 

We  turn  now  to  the  traininor  of  those  who 
can  spare  the  time  for  a  full  secondary-school 
course,  and  perhaps  go  to  a  university,  and  who 
may  some  day  hope  to  fill  responsible  positions 
in  the  engineering  world.  No  doubt  the  most 
authoritative  statement  recently  made  in  Eng- 
land in  regard  to  this  question  is  the  report 
of  Sir  William  White's  Committee  to  the  Insti- 
tution of  Civil  Engineers,^  which  should  be 
read  by  all  interested  in  the  question.  The 
Committee  is  of  opinion  that  the  average 
boy  who  is  destined  to  be  an  engineer  should 
leave  the  public  school  at  seventeen,  or  eighteen 
at  the  latest,  and  that  he  should  then  take  one 
year  of  workshop  practice  before  proceed- 
ing to  a  university  or  technical  college.  The 
subjects  specified  for  his  school  course  are : 
Advanced  History  and  Geography,  Essay  and 
Precis  Writing,  Introduction  to  English  Litera- 
ture, Elementary  Latin  (but  not  Greek),  French 
and  German — a  reading  and  conversational 
knowledge ;  Mathematics — the  geometrical  side, 
logarithms,    elements   of  trigonometry,  practical 

^  Clowes  and  Sons,  1906. 


196     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

arithmetic  ;  Elementary  Physics  and  Chemistry  ; 
Drawing.  Carpentry  or  turning,  or  field-survey- 
ing, may  be  encouraged  as  a  recreation,  but 
should  not  be  required  as  a  school  exercise. 

As  regards  the  preparatory  training,  then,  of 
such  engineers,  the  emphasis  is  very  much  on 
general  education,  as  distinct  from  technical 
training ;  and  thus  the  Committee's  report  will 
recommend  itself  to  all  those  educationists  who 
are  interested  in  the  laying  of  a  firm  foundation. 
One  condition  that  is  yet  required  to  make  the 
suggestions  of  full  effect  is  that  all  would-be 
engineers  of  this  class  should  look  forward  to 
the  full  subsequent  course  proposed,  one  year  s 
workshop  practice,  three  years  at  a  technological 
school  or  university,  and  then  two  to  three  years 
more  of  workshop  practice.  As  it  is  at  present, 
there  are  a  number  of  boys  attending  first  grade 
secondary  schools  who  are  anxious  to  be  qualified 
to  work  before  the  age  of  twenty-four.  The  con- 
sequence is  that  the  technical-school  course  is 
cut  down  or  eliminated,  and  the  public  school 
supplements  the  special  education  in  the  way 
described  by  Stephenson^  in  Public  Schools  from 
Within,  There  it  is  said  that  in  the  last  year  of 
a  boy's  school  life  he  may  be  devoting  eighteen 
hours  a  week  to  mathematics  and  science,  and 
coming  in  contact  with  a  very  varied  engineering 

*  Public  Schools  from   Within^  IX,   "Engineering,"  by  Rev. 
F.  Stephenson. 


ENGINEERING  197 

plant,  including  ''lathes,  drilling,  planing,  shaping 
and  milling  machines,  a  power  hack-saw  and  tool 
grinders,  and  a  blacksmith's  forge."  Such  a  boy's 
object  is  to  be  able  to  profit  by  taking  all  his 
workshop  practice  directly  after  he  leaves  school, 
and  so  to  take  some  post  at  about  twenty-one. 

We  may  suppose  there  will  always  be  some 
who  will  be  forced  by  reasons  of  economy  so  to 
curtail  the  course  which  the  Committee  regards 
as  ideal.  No  doubt  the  tendency  will  be  for 
more  students  to  lengthen  the  course  on  such 
weighty  authority,  and  in  any  case  everything 
possible  must  be  done  at  the  public  school  by 
making  use  of  leisure  time  for  wood  and  metal 
work,  and  by  urging  the  desirability  of  some 
technical  course — if  short — at  a  later  date,  to 
find  room  for  the  literary  and  general  programme 
put  forward  by  the  Committee.  When  this  is 
made  certain,  there  can  be  nothing  but  approval 
for  any  opportunity  which  may  come  to  a  boy 
at  school,  in  workshop  or  field,  to  cultivate  an 
interest — at  a  time  of  life  when  this  sort  of  in- 
terest is  very  strong — in  the  metal  work  or 
surveying  which  has  the  extra  charm  of  being 
bound  up  with  a  future  career. 

In  a  paper  of  the  present  length  it  is  only 
possible  to  indicate  briefly  how  the  requirements 
of  the  school  stage  in  the  education  of  engineers 
are  being  or  should  be  met.  The  question 
touches    individuals    of   widely    different    aims; 


198     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

and  we  have  shown  how  long  and  how  far,  in 
different  grades  of  work,  the  general  educa- 
tional interest  may  and  can  survive  in  competi- 
tion with  the  special  and  professional.  In  the 
pre-apprentice  school  the  future  foreman  or 
manager  is  already  beginning  to  feel  at  thirteen 
the  professional  bias  in  his  work,  while  the  future 
'*  captain  of  industry,"  or  consulting  specialist, 
is  being  told  at  Oxford^  that  he  must  not  there 
expect  too  much  professional  bias,  that  a  univer- 
sity course  must  in  the  main  teach  principles,  and 
leave  the  detailed  considerations  of  practice  for 
instructors  elsewhere. 

*  Inaugural  address  by  Professor  C.  F.  Jenkin.   Cf.  The  Times^ 
October  21,  1908. 


XVII 

SCIENCE   TEACHING  AND 
THE  TRAINING   OF  THE  AFFECTIONS 

By  SIDNEY  UNWIN,  B.Sc. 

IF  parents  would  but  do  their  duty  the  school- 
master's task  would  be  an  easy  one.  Un- 
fortunately it  is  only  the  exceptional  parent 
who  takes  the  trouble  to  explain  to  his  child 
the  mystery  of  birth  and  the  right  use  of  all  the 
different  parts  of  its  body.  The  majority  allow 
their  children  to  grow  up  in  so-called  "inno- 
cence," and  leave  them  to  find  out  for  them- 
selves. And  when  they  have  found  out,  as  find 
out  they  will,  who  is  there  to  tell  them  if  they 
have  found  the  truth  ?  Incredible  as  it  may 
seem,  the  average  parent  bequeaths  to  his  child 
that  most  delicate  of  all  instruments — a  human 
body — without  any  guidance  as  to  its  rightful  use. 
What  wonder,  then,  that  there  is  so  much  self- 
abuse  among  our  children,  so  much  sin  and 
suffering  in  our  big  cities. 

If  mothers  would  answer  a  child's  questions 
naturally  and  simply,  the  litde  one  would  not  be 
driven  to  doubtful   and   tainted   sources   for  its 

«99 


200    BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

information.  If,  instead  of  ascribing  the  advent 
of  a  baby  brother  to  the  doctor,  the  mother  were 
to  tell  the  child  the  simple  truth,  the  earliest 
associations  with  these  wonderful  facts  would 
then  be  bound  up  with  the  sweetest  of  all  affec- 
tion— the  love  of  a  child  for  its  mother ;  and  for 
ever  after  these  subjects  would  be  hallowed  by 
the  mother's  love.  Satisfy  the  natural  curiosity 
when  it  arises,  however  young  the  child  may  be, 
and  much  danger  and  often  much  suffering  will 
be  avoided.  When  a  mother  finds  her  child  talk- 
ing about  these  problems  she  must  not  say,  **  If 
you  will  come  and  ask  me  any  time  I  will  tell 
you  all  about  it,"  for  the  child  will  probably  be 
too  shy  to  broach  the  subject.  She  must  herself 
take  the  initiative  and  overcome  the  natural  shy- 
ness and  reticence  all  children  feel  when  speak- 
ing of  these  subjects  to  older  people.  Not  only 
must  every  mother  unfold  to  her  child  the  mys- 
tery of  its  birth,  but  she  must  prepare  it  for  the 
changes  that  are  to  take  place  at  puberty,  and  at 
this  point  the  father  must  step  in  and  speak  to 
his  boy.  It  is  his  duty,  and  he  must  not  shirk  it. 
But  all  this  is  a  counsel  of  perfection.  I  know 
from  experience  that  at  least  fifty  per  cent  of 
parents  never  say  a  word  to  their  children,  and 
therefore  the  schoolmaster  must  take  the  matter 
in  hand.  Unfortunately  he  is  at  a  grave  dis- 
advantage, for  there  is  no  natural  affectionate 
relationship  between  him  and  his  boy,  as  there  is 


THE   TRAINING  OF  THE   AFFECTIONS      201 

between  parent  and  child ;  and  before  he  can 
help  the  boy  in  these  matters  he  must  win  his 
confidence. 

The  first  thing  he  must  try  to  banish  is  all 
sense  of  fear.  He  must  be  his  boy's  comrade 
and  friend,  and  must  establish  an  easy  and 
cordial  relationship  with  him.  Some  boys  will 
be  very  shy  and  suspicious,  but  this  must  not 
daunt  him.  If  he  remembers  that  the  only  way 
to  win  affection  is  to  give  affection,  and  if  he 
concerns  himself  with  the  giving  alone,  the  time 
will  come  when  the  boy  will  respond,  and  he  will 
then  be  able  to  be  of  real  service  to  him.  I 
place  this  personal  relationship  first,  for  without 
it  no  curriculum,  lecture,  or  talks  can  have  their 
full  value.  The  more  the  school  can  resemble 
the  home  the  easier  will  be  the  schoolmaster's 
task ;  and  the  more  he  can  become  the  foster- 
parent  the  greater  will  be  the  service  he  can 
render  his  boys. 

How,  then,  shall  we  organise  our  school  so  that 
we  may  best  be  able  to  unfold  to  our  boys  the 
mysteries  of  birth  and  growth,  and  guide  them  in 
the  right  use  of  their  affections — in  other  words, 
how  can  we  best  train  them  to  live  and  to  love  ? 
We  will  consider  first  the  environment,  secondly 
the  curriculum,  including  the  compulsory  and 
voluntary  activities,  and  thirdly  the  social  life  of 
the  school. 

Firstly,  the  school  should  be  situated  amidst 


202     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING  : 

beautiful  scenery,  surrounded  by  its  own  estate.  ; 

This  school-state  should   include  a  farmyard,  a  j 

garden,  orchard,  playing-fields,  and  river  or  lake.  : 
On  the  farm  there  should  be  cows,  pigs,  poultry, 

and  bees ;  and  the  boys  should  be  allowed  not  ' 
only  free  access  to  them  at  all  seasons,  but  to 

wander  freely  in  every  part  of  the  estate.     As  ; 

the  months  pass  by  they  will  be  able  to  observe  j 

the  fertilisation  of  the  blossoms  by  the  wind  or  i 

by  bees,  the  mating  of  birds,  the  development  of  ! 

seeds  and  eggs,  the  ripening  of  fruits  and  burst-  j 
ing  of  seedpods,  the  hatching  of  chicks  and  tiny 

birds,  the  birth  of  little  animals,  and  the  love  of  \ 

parents  for  their  young.     Without  the  right  en-  j 

vironment  our  work  will  not  be  easy,  for  j 

One  impulse  from  a  vernal  wood  ^ 

May  teach  us  more  of  man,  ! 

Of  moral  evil  and  of  good 
Than  all  the  sages  can. 

Enough  of  Science  and  of  Art :  | 

Close  up  those  barren  leaves ;  j 

Come  forth,  and  bring  with  you  a  heart  ; 

That  watches  and  receives.  ; 

In  this  last  verse  we  catch  a  glimpse  of  the  real  I 

purpose  of  our  science  teaching — it  is  to  develop  j 

"a  heart  that  watches  and  receives";  for  unless  j 
we   can  succeed  in   this,  we   had    better    follow 

Wordsworth's   advice  and  have    nothing   to   do  . 

with  it.     And  this  brings  us  to  the  question  of  i 


THE  TRAINING   OF  THE   AFFECTIONS      203 

the  curriculum,  which  I  propose  to  divide  under 
three  headings  : — 

(i)  The  science  work,  including  nature-study, 
hygiene,  and  economics. 

(2)  The  compulsory  practical  work,  including 
poultry  and  bee-keeping,  farm  and  garden 
occupations. 

(3)  The  voluntary  work  in  free  time. 

The  science  work  should  gradually  teach  a  boy 
to  observe  and  think  for  himself.  He  should 
be  encouraged  to  experiment,  to  describe  his 
experiments  and  the  conclusions  he  draws  from 
them.  By  this  means  he  will  gradually  become 
familiar  with  the  facts  of  nutrition  and  reproduc- 
tion, and  the  laws  of  growth.  He  will  learn 
what  gives  and  what  prevents  health,  and  how 
over-indulgence  is  bound,  sooner  or  later,  to 
produce  illness.  He  must  be  taught  to  study 
living,  not  **dead,"  nature,  and  his  attention  must 
be  directed  not  only  to  the  wealth  of  life  around 
him  but  to  the  web  of  life — to  the  intimate  way 
in  which  plants  and  animals  are  dependent  upon 
one  another,  and  how  they  are  adapted,  or  adapt 
themselves,  to  their  environment.  He  will  soon 
begin  to  realise  the  meaning  of  "  the  struggle  for 
life,"  and  will  become  interested  in  the  way  plants 
and  animals  shift  for  their  living.  Further 
observation  will  show  him  the  value  of  socia- 
bility, and  his  attention  must  be  drawn  to  the 


204     BROAD   LINES   IN  SCIENCE  TEACHING 

domestic  life  of  the  higher  animals  and  the  self- 
sacrifice  of  parents  for  their  young. 

The  study  of  the  animal  world  must  lead  up  to 
the  study  of  man.  He  should  be  taught  why 
laws  are  made,  and  his  attention  should  be  called 
to  the  written  and  unwritten  laws  of  the  school. 
This  should  lead  on  to  an  investigation  of  the 
economics  of  the  neighbouring  village  or  town, 
and  to  further  discussion  of  the  relationship 
between  work  and  wages,  labour  and  capital,  the 
effect  of  competition  and  the  value  of  co-opera- 
tion. He  will  thus  gradually  learn  to  understand 
the  laws  which  govern  his  own  body,  his  relation- 
ship to  nature  and  his  fellow-men,  and  will  dis- 
cover how  to  control  nature  and  himself,  and  get 
the  best  out  of  his  fellows. 

The  compulsory  practical  work  will  show  him 
the  value  of  steady  and  patient  toil.  In  the 
preparation  and  cultivation  of  the  ground,  the 
interminable  weeding,  the  sowing  of  the  seed,  and 
the  eventual  harvest,  he  will  see  the  result  of 
faithful  work.  Let  him  neglect  his  chicks  or  his 
calves  for  a  day  or  two,  and  death  will  teach 
him  something  that  punishment,  artificially  in- 
flicted, never  may.  The  care  of  poultry  and 
bees  and  the  rearing  of  the  young  afford  oppor- 
tunity for  those  boys  who  want  to  keep  pets.  It 
also  brings  them  into  contact  with  the  fertile  and 
unfertile  egg,  thus  enabling  the  teacher  to  speak 
of  fertilisation  quite  naturally.     The  devotion  of 


THE   TRAINING   OF   THE   AFFECTIONS      205 

the  mother  to  her  little  ones,  their  instant  obedi- 
ence to  her  call  when  danger  threatens,  her 
gratuitous  self-sacrifice  for  them,  show  the  boy 
that  law  is  necessary  and  that  self-interest  is  not 
the  only  motive  of  action.  The  study  of  the  hive 
and  its  inmates  teaches  him  similar  lessons. 

But  while  compulsory  work  has  its  value  and 
gradually  helps  a  boy  to  form  good  habits,  we 
must  not  neglect  to  teach  him  to  use  his  free  time 
well,  and  to  do  so  I  would  recommend  the  giving 
of  prizes  for  any  good  work  that  comes  up  to  a 
certain  standard.  Encourage  the  boy  to  take  up 
some  hobby,  such  as  natural  history,  gardening, 
sketching,  archaeology  or  architecture.  These 
hobbies  prevent  loafing — a  practice  which  often 
leads  boys  into  vice.  In  the  winter,  when  out- 
door hobbies  are  impossible,  boys  may  be  taught 
some  craft,  such  as  leather- work  or  modelling ; 
or  they  may  be  encouraged,  especially  the  new- 
comers and  timid  ones,  to  box,  fence,  and  wrestle, 
when  they  will  learn  the  value  of  keeping  their 
tempers. 

Such  a  curriculum  as  the  one  sketched 
out  will  help  us  very  materially  to  train  our 
boys  as  we  wish.  But  though  the  environment 
and  the  curriculum  are  important  they  will  not 
help  us  unless  the  social  life  is  good.  To  ensure 
this  we  must  have  many  private  talks  with  our  boys 
in  order  to  tell  them  individually  what  we  cannot 
collectively.    Assuming  that  they  enter  the  school 


2o6     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

between  the  ages  of  eleven  and  twelve,  it  is  well 
to  see  each  one  during  his  first  or  second  term  to 
ascertain  whether  his  parents  have  told  him,  and 
if  not,  to  explain  to  him  quite  simply  the  facts  of 
birth.  The  spring  term  is  one  of  the  best  times 
to  treat  this  matter,  because  nature  is  awakening 
from  her  winter  sleep  and  giving  birth  to  new 
life.  We  can  therefore  lead  up  to  the  subject 
quite  easily. 

Before  speaking  to  any  boy  we  must  ascertain 
as  much  as  we  can  of  his  past  history,  in  order 
that  we  may  have  some  clue  as  to  whether  he 
is  likely  to  have  already  gained  knowledge  on 
these  subjects  from  tainted  sources.  If  the  boy's 
behaviour  and  character  are  good  it  is  best  not 
to  suggest  to  his  mind  that  bad  habits  can  be 
formed  ;  but  to  answer  his  questions,  tell  him  the 
right  use  of  his  body,  and  encourage  him  to 
come  to  you  if  he  meets  with  anything  he  does 
not  understand.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  you  are 
almost  sure  he  has  got  into  bad  habits,  or  has 
gained  his  knowledge  from  bad  sources,  it  is  best 
to  talk  to  him  frankly  about  the  matter,  and 
make  him  feel  that  at  all  costs  he  must  give  up 
the  habit  before  it  becomes  too  deeply  rooted. 
At  the  same  time  he  must  be  protected,  as  far  as 
possible,  from  bad  influences  ;  and  have  his  hands 
and  mind  kept  well  occupied,  so  that  he  goes  to 
bed  tired  out  after  a  full  day's  work. 

Before  a  boy  reaches  puberty  it  is  well  to  have 


THE   TRAINING   OF   THE   AFFECTIONS      207 

another  talk  with  him,  and  by  reminding  him  of 
some  of  the  phenomena  in  nature  with  which  he 
is  now  familiar,  e.g.  the  waste  of  pollen  grain  in 
fir-trees,  prepare  him  for  the  changes  that  will 
soon  come  in  his  own  life. 

If  you  know  or  suspect  that  the  boy  has  fallen 
into  bad  habits,  but  is  not  injuring  others,  you 
must  beware  of  frightening  him,  and  making  him 
think  that  he  is  wicked.  The  mental  effect  of 
worrying  and  brooding  over  his  failures  is  far 
more  serious  than  any  physical  effect.  He  must 
be  taught  that  in  this  matter  he  must  strive  to 
gain  absolute  self-control,  just  as  he  has  to  learn 
to  control  his  temper  and  his  other  bodily  appe- 
tites. Above  all,  cleanliness  and  hard  physical 
exercise  must  be  insisted  on,  and  the  boy  must 
be  given  opportunity  to  be  unselfish.  This  will 
be  the  best  cure  for  his  difficulties.  Teach  him 
to  be  a  friend  to  some  one,  and  soon  his  selfish 
desires  will  cease  to  worry  him.  At  the  same 
time  he  should  be  told  a  little  about  the  analogous 
changes  that  take  place  in  girls,  in  order  to 
prevent  him  from  ever  being  unkind  to  them 
through  ignorance  ;  and  to  a  boy  who  has  been 
taught  to  observe  nature,  this  knowledge  will  not 
come  as  a  shock. 

At  this  point  I  should  like  to  say  a  word  about 
the  education  of  girls,  for  mothers  are  often  con- 
tent to  tell  their  daughters  just  the  bare  minimum, 
and  leave  them  in  ignorance  of  the  facts  of  sex. 


2o8     BROAD   LINES    IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

with  the  result  that  the  young  girls  either  satisfy 
their  curiosity  by  reading  unpleasant  novels,  or 
grow  up  "innocent,"  exposed  to  all  the  dangers 
connected  with  this  subject.  Though  the  average 
girl  probably  does  not  have  such  a  battle  with 
herself  as  the  average  boy,  and  is  innately  less 
uncontrolled,  it  is  no  excuse  for  leaving  her 
ignorant.  She  ought  to  know  all  about  herself, 
and  something  about  the  other  sex,  not  only  for 
her  own  sake,  but  for  the  sake  of  those  to  whom 
she  can  be  of  help ;  and  this,  I  take  it,  is  the 
main  sanction  for  bringing  up  boys  and  girls 
together. 

"The  fundamental  issue  in  co-education  is  a 
moral  question,"  says  Rektor  Brunn,  the  head- 
master of  a  mixed  school  in  Denmark,  where 
co-education  has  always  been  the  rule  in  the 
villages,  and  is  now  the  rule  in  the  provincial 
towns.  "It  either  entails  disadvantages  and 
dangers,  or  has  a  mutually  good  influence  on 
both  sexes."  After  a  discussion  on  the  subject, 
which  may  be  found  in  Miss  Henni  H.  Forsch- 
hammer's  article  on  "  Moral  Instruction  and 
Training  in  Denmark,"^  he  concludes  by  saying 
that  in  his  experience  "co-education,  when  carried 
on  with  interest  and  care,  raises  the  standard  of 
morality." 

My  own  experience  is  the  same.    I  have  found 

^  Moral  Instruction  and  Training  in  Schools ^  Vol.  II.     Long- 
mans and  Co. 


I 


THE   TRAINING   OF   THE   AFFECTIONS      209 

during  seven  years  of  observation  that  the 
presence  of  girls  makes  the  tone  higher  and  the 
life  sweeter,  that  the  innate  purity  of  girls  makes 
the  dangers  of  immorality  less  than  it  is  when 
boys  are  thrown  only  with  boys.  **  Hands  off" 
is  the  girl's  instinctive  feeling,  while  the  small 
boy  will  often  give  way  to  the  older  one.  The 
companionship  of  girls  gradually  helps  the  boy 
to  gain  complete  mastery  of  himself,  and  con- 
vinces him  that  men  must  have  the  same  moral 
standard  as  women. 

Miss  Forschhammer's  article  also  gives  an 
account  of  the  attempts  that  are  being  made  in 
Denmark  to  teach  systematically  the  problems 
of  sex  as  a  class  subject,  beginning  with  lessons 
on  the  natural  history  of  plants  and  animals,  and 
gradually  leading  up  to  the  discussion  of  sexual 
hygiene  and  ethics.  The  results  of  such  teaching 
seem  to  have  been  excellent.  In  these  matters 
Denmark  has  done  more  than  we  have  in  England, 
for  I  am  not  aware  that  any  such  class  teaching 
is  given  in  this  country. 

And  next,  although  the  title  of  my  article  does 
not  allow  me,  I  must  ask  leave  to  make  a  digres- 
sion, to  show  how  opportunities  for  unselfishness 
and  service  may  be  given.  Perhaps  the  most 
powerful  influence  in  a  school  is  the  general  tone, 
and  a  good  tone  can  only  be  produced  by  enlist- 
ing the  co-operation  of  the  older  boys  and  girls 
in   the  school   government.     Responsibility  will 


2IO    BROAD  LINES   IN   SCIENCE   TEACHING 

often  do  for  them  what  any  amount  of  teaching 
will  fail  to  accomplish.  As  soon  as  they  show 
any  signs  of  being  ready  for  it  some  small  re- 
sponsibility should  be  given  them ;  and  with 
increased  responsibility  we  must  provide  oppor- 
tunities for  public  service.  Above  all,  we  must 
be  very  patient  and  allow  plenty  of  freedom  for 
experience.  A  too  rigid  discipline  and  code  of 
rules  may  very  easily  crush  out  individuality  and 
check  moral  growth,  or  actually  produce  vice. 
We  must  allow  an  outlet  for  the  affections  if  we 
are  to  train  them.  Experience  is  our  best  school ; 
and  teachers  must  not  only  afford  ample  oppor- 
tunity for  all — especially  the  older  ones — to  learn 
by  blundering,  but  they  should  tell  them  frankly 
their  own  experience. 

Before  boys  and  girls  leave  school  they  should 
be  spoken  to  about  fatherhood  and  motherhood, 
and  should  be  told  of  some  of  the  dangers  and 
temptations  they  will  meet  in  the  great  world,  so 
that  being  forewarned  they  may  be  forearmed. 

Lastly,  in  the  chapel  services,  which  should  be 
as  bright  as  possible,  all  the  teaching  must 
be  brought  to  a  focus,  and  the  highest  ideals  of 
life  must  be  put  before  them.  They  should  be 
taught  that  religion  gives  the  sanction  for  these 
ideals  and  the  incentive  to  act  up  to  them  ; 
teaching  as  it  does  that  the  whole  duty  of  man 
consists  in  love  to  God  and  love  to  his  neighbour. 


XVIII 

SCIENCE  TEACHING  AND  A  CHILD'S 
PHILOSOPHY 

By  CORA  B.  SANDERS 

TO  trace  the  course  of  the  controversy 
between  scientific  thought  and  religion 
would  lead  to  interesting  reflections 
on  the  self-consciousness  of  a  genera- 
tion ;  and  though  such  a  subject  is  not  within 
the  scope  of  this  paper,  a  few  words  may  be 
allowed  for  introduction.  None  will  contest  that 
the  measure  of  agreement  between  the  two  sides 
has  increased  during  the  last  half-century. 
Theology  has  accepted  new  knowledge  such  as 
it  at  first  seemed  disinclined  to  do  ;  and  science 
has  taken  up  a  more  self-critical  attitude,  defining 
the  scope  of  natural  law,  and  leaving  room,  by 
implication,  for  a  First  Cause — knowable,  if  at  all, 
through  some  other  range  of  ideas.  To  many — 
among  them  the  present  writer — the  conflict 
seems  to  have  been  much  smaller  than  those  on 
its  brink  perceived,  and  to  be  now  philosophically 
ended. 

Whether  so  much  be  accepted  or  not,  it  will 

211 


212     BROAD   LINES   IN    SCIENCE  TEACHING 

be  agreed  that  much  misunderstanding  and 
distress  would  have  been  avoided  if  each  party- 
could  have  approached  the  other  with  a  more 
open  mind  ;  and  it  is  with  the  object  of  reducing 
the  dangers  of  want  of  sympathy  and  perspec- 
tive in  such  matters  that  the  present  paper  has 
been  written. 

There  seem  to  be  two  science-religion  pro- 
blems :  one  personal  and  philosophical,  the  other 
social  and  practical.  In  the  former  case  the 
individual  is  hampered  by  some  want  of  fit 
between  the  method  and  fact  of  science  and  the 
needs  of  faith.  This  is  the  side  which  in  writing 
this  paper  has  been  chiefly  in  mind.  In  the 
second  connection  we  meet  in  practice  two  types 
of  mind,  suggesting  different  scales  of  value  and 
opposite  courses  of  action.  For  instance,  it  is 
sometimes  hard  to  see  how  the  full  claims  of 
Christianity  can  be  met  in  a  society  which  is 
pledged  to  national  competition  in  an  acute 
form.  It  is  too  large  a  question  for  considera- 
tion now ;  but  whatever  may  be  said  here  as  to 
the  need  for  harmonising  science  teaching  with 
that  of  religion  must  ultimately  tend,  it  may  be 
hoped,  towards  reconciliation  in  the  world  at 
large,  as  well  as  in  the  minds  of  individuals. 

It  should  be  mentioned,  in  passing,  that  where 
in  the  sequel  the  words  *' theology"  and  "reli- 
gion "  are  used,  the  writer  is  thinking  in  terms 
of  the  Christian  religion  as  met  with  in  England 


SCIENCE   AND   A   CHILD'S   PHILOSOPHY    213 

at  the  present  day.  The  harmony  to  be  attained 
between  scientific  thought  and  faith  would  be 
found  in  somewhat  the  same  way  in  other  cases  ; 
and  much  of  what  is  said  has  no  specific  implica- 
tion ;  but  it  cannot  be  forgotten  that  what  school- 
masters and  school-mistresses  have  to  deal  with 
in  practice  is  some  form — unsectarian  maybe — 
of  the  Christian  religion. 

The  real  degree  of  agreement,  then,  is  more 
widely  recognised  now  than  it  was  a  few  years 
ago  ;  nevertheless,  for  a  considerable  number  of 
individuals  the  old  difficulties  still  exist  (on  the 
Continent  this  seems  to  be  more  frequently  the 
case  than  with  us).  Nor  is  it  a  matter  for  sur- 
prise, as  the  attitude  of  destructive  criticism  is 
taken  up  much  more  easily  than  the  habit  of 
constructive  thought  is  acquired.  A  man  who 
adopts  the  former  attitude  may  take  for  granted 
the  non-existence  of  a  unity,  for  the  perception  of 
which  he  lacks  the  mental  equipment. 

In  our  own  country,  however,  the  difficulty,  I 
believe,  often  springs  from  two  much  more  in- 
significant sources. 

The  first  is  from  bad  science  or  poor  theology. 
When  either  of  these  great  bodies  of  knowledge 
is  in  any  of  its  parts  misrepresented,  the  un- 
fortunate learner  is  left  a  prey  to  mental  con- 
fusion. There  is  a  good  analogy,  applying  a 
physical  example  to  mental  processes,  in  thinking 
of  the  enormous  distortion  produced  in  an  image 


214     BROAD   LINES   IN  SCIENCE  TEACHING 

by  ever  so  minute  a  flaw  in  one  of  many  glasses 
through  which  a  beam  of  light  is  sent.  When 
in  science  teaching  hypotheses  are  treated  as  fact, 
or  from  one  established  point  a  whole  generalisa- 
tion is  made,  such  a  flaw  is  created  ;  and  it  is 
superfluous  to  enlarge  on  the  dual  criminality  of 
at  once  disfiguring  actuality  and  violating  the 
true  scientific  attitude  of  expectant,  patient 
open-mindedness.  Though  this  happens  not  in- 
frequently in  adult  popular  science  teaching,  it 
probably  does  not  occur  in  schools,  which  are 
now  chiefly  under  consideration.  There  theology 
more  often  suffers. 

**  Poor  theology"  should  here  be  interpreted 
less  as  bad  than  insufficient  teaching.  Religious 
or  theological  teaching  has  been  very  often  in 
the  past  given  as  if  simply  with  the  object  of 
keeping  alive  the  religious  feelings  awakened  at 
home,  and  any  real  enlargement  of  view  or  in- 
crease of  knowledge  has  been  left  to  private 
exertion.  This  may  have  arisen  in  many  cases 
from  hesitation  at  showing  to  children  the 
difficulties  which  such  knowledge  tries  to  meet. 
These  points  were  brought  forward  at  the  recent 
Congress  on  Moral  Education,  and  are  too  self- 
evident  to  be  mentioned  without  apology. 

The  other  cause  of  difficulty  to  which  I  would 
point  is  less  generally  acknowledged,  though  it 
is  probably  a  very  common  one.  It  forms  the 
chief  excuse  for  adding  a  paper  to  these  much- 


SCIENCE   AND   A   CHILD'S   PHILOSOPHY    215 

laboured  questions.  The  sequence  in  which 
these  branches  of  knowledge  are  presented  is 
alone  responsible  for  much  misconception. 
Usually  religious  knowledge  has  no  beginning 
in  the  sense  that  it  is  part  and  parcel  of  an  in- 
dividual's life  ;  he  grows  up  with  it.  Science,  in 
the  extended  sense,  is  only  introduced  later,  at 
the  very  end  of  school  life  or  even  beyond  it. 
Then  it  may  come  with  a  certain  shock,  as  a 
whole  mass  of  new  facts  and  new  hypotheses 
which  cannot  be  fitted  to  those  already  possessed. 
All  the  phenomena  which  by  the  child  were 
either  taken  for  granted  or  accounted  for  by  some 
pictorial  tradition  are  seen  as  a  self-consistent 
mechanism,  and  over  and  over  again  this  new  set 
of  ideas  takes  up  the  whole  mental  foreground, 
either  shutting  out  or  overthrowing  the  earlier 
series. 

The  fact  that  in  most  schools  some  form  of 
science  is  taught  from  the  lower  forms  upward 
does  not  seriously  affect  this  contention;  for  biology 
rarely  appears  save  under  one  of  two  forms.  It 
may  occur  as  nature-study  of  a  rather  stereotyped 
character,  where  any  trace  of  a  theory  of  natural 
order  is  ruled  out  of  natural  history  ;  or  secondly, 
as  botany  taught  on  one  of  the  several  examina- 
tion syllabuses  which  again  leave  no  room  for  the 
more  general  natural  theories.  All  such  con- 
siderations seem  to  be  rigorously  avoided;  by  some 
for  fear  of  raising  difficulties  in  children's  minds — 


2i6     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

the  reason  cited  above  as  also  frequently  deterring 
educators  from  systematic  theological  teaching. 
Others,  again,  withhold  generalisations  from 
middle-school  work  in  conformity  with  the  recent 
view  that  the  child  must  itself  develop  what  it 
learns,  and  must  therefore  do  without  far-reach- 
ing hypotheses  till  the  time  when  the  adult  mind 
may  be  supposed  to  conceive  of  them.  It  is  not 
within  the  scope  of  this  paper  to  examine  in  detail 
the  considerations  which,  to  my  mind,  diminish 
the  force  of  these  objections,  and  the  more  im- 
portant ones  can  be  gathered  from  subsequent 
arguments  more  easily  than  at  this  point. 

There  is  still,  it  seems  then,  a  science-and- 
religion  problem  lurking  in  a  region  untouched 
by  the  work  of  the  more  serious  constructive 
philosophers,  a  region  which  may  remain  for  a 
long  time  uninfluenced  by  it.  It  is  usual  in  every 
grave  difficulty  to  look  to  schools  for  help,  and  I 
believe  that  this  one  could  be  forestalled  by  a 
slight  widening  and  readjustment  of  the  curricu- 
lum and  without  endangering  any  other  purposes 
of  school  education. 

Before  treating  more  at  length  the  advantages 
and  difficulties  of  the  suggested  change,  it  is 
necessary  for  the  sake  of  completeness  to  mention 
briefly  some  general  ideas  underlying  the  whole 
subject.  Without  attempting  any  serious  dis- 
cussion it  may  be  possible  to  outline  a  reasonable 
position  in  that  region  where  belief  or  disbelief 


SCIENCE  AND  A  CHILD'S   PHILOSOPHY    217 

must  largely  influence  the  educator's  method  if 
not  his  aim. 

The  average  man  does  not,  or  cannot,  do 
without  ''philosophy."  However  little  he  may 
acknowledge  it,  however  crude  his  conception 
may  be,  some  picture  of  ''reality"  is  there.  At 
some  time  or  other  every  one,  almost  every  one, 
renders  some  account  to  himself  for  existence,  al- 
though it  may  be  confused  or  even  shrouded  in 
a  general  negation. 

Using  the  term  philosophy  in  this  very  wide 
sense  for  the  crude  individual  ideas  of  meta- 
physic,  it  certainly  has  its  place  in  childhood  no 
less  than  in  later  years.  Ordinarily  intelligent 
children  very  soon  think  about  "beginning"  and 
"ending,"  both  for  themselves  and  other  mortals. 
They  realise  that  they  are  "  here  "  with  a  natural 
accompanying  sense  of  curiosity  as  to  the  *'  not 
here,"  which  further  prompts  them  to  the  ques- 
tioning "wherefore.'*"  This  is  borne  out  by  their 
comfortable  assimilation  of  teaching  as  to  the 
"purpose"  of  this  life.^     This  does  not  need  to  be 

^  Cf.  Report  of  Congress  on  Moral  Education.  The  efforts 
made  among  non-religious  moral  teachers  to  supply  this  feeling 
of  "  reason  "  and  "  purpose  "  in  existence  are  usually,  by  some  form 
of  sociological  theory,  to  show  the  slow  evolution  of  the  race, 
assigning  to  each  generation  its  particular  charge,  inherited  and 
potential,  in  the  cause  of  progress.  It  is  a  question  whether  this 
fine  conception,  which  appears  to  fill  sufficiently  the  mental  horizon 
of  some  adults,  can  satisfy  a  child's  spirit  and  lull  its  first  quick 
craving  for  a  reason,  cause,  purpose,  which  is  as  much  a  spiritual 
as  an  intellectual  demand. 


2i8     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

further  insisted  on.  To  those  who  have  had 
varied  experience  of  little  children,  it  is  abundantly 
clear  that  the  feeling  of  ''will"  is  very  strong  in 
healthy  infants,  before  the  time  when  they  can 
question  its  freedom !  They  only  want  to  know 
the  use  of  this  all-engrossing  possession.  The 
early  teaching  of  religion  stimulates  and  feeds  these 
mental  and  spiritual  capacities  alike.  It  shows 
children  by  means  of  simple  pictures  a  world- 
order  in  which  their  immortal  personalities  have 
a  place  and  meaning  under  laws  working  to  one 
great  end ;  ideas  which  are  capable  of  expansion 
with  the  normal  and  healthy  growth  of  the  mind. 
It  is  not  overstating  the  case  to  say  that  a  great 
number  of  educators  seriously  doubt  whether  a 
complete  and  happy  development  is  possible 
without  some  religious  training.  Indirect  evi- 
dence, of  course,  is  to  be  drawn  from  that  wide- 
spread fear  of  disturbing  a  child's  faith  and  from 
the  willingness  so  often  shown  by  parents 
professing  no  religion  to  give  it  a  place  in  the 
education  of  the  young.  ^  At  least  as  far  as 
England  is  concerned,  it  may  be  taken  for 
granted  that  these  facts  are  appreciated  and  that 
an  early  religious  training  is  the  rule.     All  but 

^  One  would  like  to  bring  to  the  notice  of  those  who  are  not 
convinced  of  the  necessity  of  some  spiritual  food  to  a  child's  life 
the  extent  to  which  religious  teaching  is  efficacious  (in  producing 
that  active  satisfaction  which  we  term  happiness)  amongst  those 
in  whom  intellectual  development  is  much  retarded  or  insufficient. 
Teaching  of  the  feeble-minded  provides  matter  for  study. 


SCIENCE   AND   A   CHILD'S   PHILOSOPHY    219 

the  least  active  minds,  however,  are  soon  ready 
for  a  more  detailed  cosmogony,  without  danger 
of  its  leading  to  over-speculation. 

It  would  be,  I  think,  pressing  the  point  too  far 
to  suggest  that  science  teaching  should  be  co- 
extensive with  religious  training,  but  it  would,  I 
believe,  be  most  valuable  to  give  it  a  place  in  the 
regular  child-half  of  school  life  where  it  is  not 
practicable  to  extend  it  over  all  school  years, 
remembering  how  much  it  adds  to  the  complete- 
ness of  an  individual's  philosophy  and  to  the 
stability  of  his  religion  to  become  acquainted 
early  with  current  biological  knowledge,  and 
realising  that  while  formerly  it  might  have  been 
urged  that  such  knowledge  was  unnecessary,  now 
the  fact  has  to  be  faced  that  it  is  inevitable. 

It  will  be  clearer  to  consider  separately  the 
two  sides  of  science,  as  in  both  method  and  effect 
the  tendencies  of  organic  and  inorganic  study  are 
very  diverse.  From  our  present  point  of  view 
the  organic  side  presents  the  most  obvious 
problem. 

It  is  evident  from  the  opening  paragraphs  that 
by  the  teaching  of  biology  here  advocated  for 
young  children,  the  mere  teaching  of  any  series 
of  organic  facts  is  not  meant.  The  term  is  to 
include  something  more  and  something  different. 
The  theory  of  organic  evolution  should  form  part 
of  the  child's  stock-in-trade  of  ideas.  In  outline 
it  can  be  grasped  by  very  small  children,  and  I 


220     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE    TEACHING 

believe  few  teachers  would  find  it  difficult  to 
interweave  it  with  whatever  form  the  ** science" 
is  required  to  take.  In  nature-study  (as  it  might 
be  taught  for  the  upper  part  of  kindergarten  or 
the  lowest  school  forms)  it  makes  a  thread  on 
which  all  observations  may  be  strung.  Later, 
where  some  set  botanical  syllabus  has  to  be 
followed,  it  would  call  for  the  sacrifice  of  only 
two  or  three  explanatory  lessons,  after  which  it 
would  of  course  form  a  background  to  all  parts 
of  the  work,  of  such  intellectual  satisfaction  to 
the  small  students  that  the  number  **  interested  in 
science  "  would  be  more  than  doubled.  And  it 
might  result  in  the  desirable  end  of  the  accept- 
ance of  some  part  of  animal  biology  in  many 
curricula  where  that  is  now  regarded  with  sus- 
picion. When  once  the  theory  has  been  put  for- 
ward it  need  not  take  a  prominent  place  to  the 
exclusion  of  observation.  Occasional  hints  are 
enough  to  keep  it  in  view,  while  observations  are 
sorted  as  bearing  upon  it  or  not.  The  endeavour 
need  not  be  relinquished  even  where  systematic 
biological  work  is  impossible ;  few  schools  are 
without  occasional  isolated  lectures,  and  natural 
history  will  no  longer  be  a  topic  attractive  only  to 
the  minority  known  as  **  bug-hunters  "  when  the 
small  data  cited  are  incorporated  with  a  concep- 
tion highly  interesting  to  every  intelligent  person. 
Here  reference  may  again  be  made  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  a  simultaneous  presentation  of  the 


SCIENCE   AND   A   CHILD'S   PHILOSOPHY    221 

two  sets  of  ideas,  religious  and  scientific  ;  and 
insignificant  as  this  point  may  seem,  I  think  that 
the  importance  of  its  results  cannot  easily  be 
exaggerated.  Once  it  has  been  taken  for  granted 
that  there  is  no  intrinsic  problem  in  science  and 
religion,  then  all  that  appears  as  such  resolves 
itself  into  restricted  knowledge,  or  simply  con- 
fusion. Where  the  two  are  not  learned  side  by 
side  the  last  to  be  understood  comes  with  a  dif- 
ferent kind  of  force,  due  not  to  its  own  intrinsic 
value,  but  to  the  increased  faculty  of  comprehen- 
sion and  insight  with  which  it  is  received.  But 
when  both  are  presented  at  the  same  age,  growth 
and  development  in  due  course  affect  both 
regions  equally. 

In  any  analysis  of  cases  in  which  science  is 
felt  to  be  irreconcilable  with  faith,  one  factor, 
frequently  the  chief  one,  resolves  itself  into  a 
confused  conception  of  Causation.  But  where 
knowledge  and  progress  in  both  fields  proceed 
together,  natural  law  less  easily  fills  the  whole 
view  and  will  assume  more  naturally  the  second- 
ary place.  To  those  who  have  once  thought  of  it 
as  a  method  (even  a  ''  mechanism  ")  there  will  be 
little  difficulty  in  accepting  another  cause;  indeed, 
they  will  demand  it.  Some  very  speculative 
young  people  might  need  a  little  help  here,  but 
more  often  the  co-expansion  of  ideas  will  obviate 
the  difficulty. 

I   should  like  to  note,   in   passing,   the   great 


2  22     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING  ] 

assistance   which   biology  teaching   of  this  type  ! 

gives  in  the  upper  half  of  school  to  the  Divinity  j 

lessons,  and  to   the  humane  subjects   generally  I 

(though  this  is,  perhaps,  beside  the  mark).     Of  i 

course,   this   is   chiefly   from   the   point  of  view  | 

of  evolution.     It  is  not  an  easy  conception   to  | 

introduce  either  as  regards  ideas  or  morals.     In  ' 

dealing   with   the   concrete   forms    of    language  \ 

it  would  be  more  possible  if  a  child's  knowledge  j 

could  be  wide  enough   to   trace   forms  through  j 

their  changes.     But  any  study  of  organisms  not  j 

only   furnishes   many    signs   of  it,    but   is    even  ; 
unintelligible  in  the  truest  sense  without  it.     And 
having  the  idea  once  fixed  from  the  concrete,  it 

may  later  be  applied  in  other  regions  with  real  ; 

understanding.      In    such   work   we    are    doing  ; 

something   in  the   direction  of  training  in  con-  i 

structive  thought,  though  it  is,  of  course,  a  very  \ 

humble  beginning.     However,  it  is  worth  while  \ 
to  set  men's  minds  to  work  on  the  right  track, 
in   the    only    time   when   we    are    sure    of    the 
opportunity.     Is  it  not  for  want  of  some  such 

preparation    as  this   that  teachers  are  so  rarely  | 

able  to  deal  with  such  subjects  as  the  develop-  j 

ment  of  man's  idea  of  God,  or  immortality,  in  i 

the   Old  Testament,  though    they  are  the  very  ; 

questions  on   which   the  fifteen-year-old    boy  is  | 
eager  for  enlightenment.'^ 

In  yet  another  department,  a  biological  point 
of  view  might  often  be  a  help  to  thinkers — that  is, 


SCIENCE   AND   A   CHILD'S   PHILOSOPHY    223 

the  question  of  the  mysteries  of  life,  though 
these  things  usually  belong  to  later  reflection. 
Compare  the  sort  of  mental  worry  which  attacks 
some  people  of  imagining  an  exact  point  of 
departure  for  "  spirit,"  with  the  scientist's  attitude. 
He  has  again  and  again  to  acknowledge  himself 
beaten  in  his  efforts  after  an  insight  into  minute 
beginnings  or  workings ;  he  does  not,  however, 
allow  himself  to  deny  any  phenomenon  because 
he  cannot  explain  or  trace  its  origin.  He  knows 
that  a  process  is  no  less  real  because  his  eyes  are 
too  weak,  his  weights  too  gross,  and  his  calcu- 
lations too  mechanical  to  enable  him  to  understand 
its  initial  stages.  At  whatever  phase  he  perceives 
it,  there  he  faces  and  acknowledges  it,  and  re- 
adjusts his  previous  conclusions  to  admit  this 
new  element. 

One  consideration,  of  importance  equally  for 
inorganic  and  organic  work,  is  that  of  the  place 
which  "  laws  of  nature "  hold  in  philosophy. 
For  lack  of  training  in  logic,  this  is  often  only 
perceived  confusedly,  and  we  are  misled  to  think 
of  these  as  something  "absolute."  Would  it  be 
vain  to  advocate  a  more  general  instruction 
in  elementary  philosophy  ?  It  is  at  least  easy 
to  point  out  how  often  a  decade  modifies  cur- 
rent theories,  and  to  put  them  in  their  right 
perspective  by  showing  the  alterations,  more  or 
less  radical,  which  they  undergo  from  time  to 
time.     Thus  they  can  be  recognised  as  what  they 


224     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

are — namely,  the  formula  by  which  we  try  to 
represent  to  our  minds  the  series  of  observed 
phenomena.  "  Order  "  being  for  us  a  necessity 
to  clear  thought,  we  postulate  it  for  the  universe. 

I  believe  that  chemistry  and  physics  are  gener- 
ally felt  not  to  have  such  a  disturbing  influence 
on  religious  ideas  as  biology.  Certainly  their 
effect  as  a  mental  training  is  very  different,  apart 
from  the  general  schooling  in  observation  and 
accuracy  which  both  give.  The  distinction  is,  of 
course,  between  experiment  and  deduction  on 
the  one  hand,  and  observation  and  reconstruction 
on  the  other.  One  particular  danger  from  in- 
organic work  to  the  undisturbed  possession  of  a 
religious  creed  lies  in  the  gigantic  proportions 
which  ** matter"  is  apt  to  assume.  It  can 
dominate  every  other  aspect  of  reality  until  any- 
thing which  cannot  be  weighed  and  subjected  to 
laboratory  tests  appears  unreal. 

What  has  already  been  said  about  the  simul- 
taneous presentation  of  ideas  would  naturally 
apply  in  some  degree  here.  Moreover,  the 
general  knowledge  of  biology  which  has  been 
advocated  would  help  to  prevent  this  one-sided- 
ness.  But  it  is  not  a  danger  likely  to  assail 
children,  only  those  growing  out  of  childhood  and 
working  in  the  upper  forms,  where  specialising 
may  cause  many  hours  to  be  spent  on  one 
subject.  Here,  as  has  just  been  suggested,  it 
might  be  worth  while  to  forestall  future  difficulties 


SCIENCE   AND   A   CHILD'S   PHILOSOPHY    225 

by  a  little  help  in  philosophical  thinking.  Whether 
it  came  under  the  head  of  science  or  theology, 
an  elementary  course  in  "  Theory  of  Knowledge  " 
or  "Metaphysics"  would  be  sure  to  create  in- 
terest, and  might  give  just  the  guidance  necessary 
to  prevent  the  confusion  referred  to  above  between 
apparent  and  ultimate  causation.  It  seems  possible 
too  that  a  little  speculative  theory  might  be  intro- 
duced into  inorganic  lessons  as  well  as  organic. 
Laplace's  theory,  or  some  suitable  astronomical 
application  of  "laws  of  matter,"  would  be  useful 
in  bringing  these  into  their  right  proportion  in 
children's  minds — in  helping  towards  the  concep- 
tion that  these  forces  which  stagger  us  by  their 
inevitableness  are  servants  of  our  universe,  not 
that  it  is  a  haphazard  product  of  them. 

It  seems  a  work  of  supererogation  to  plead 
now  in  any  particular  direction  for  that  co- 
ordination of  knowledge  which  is  being  so  care- 
fully worked  out  in  many  branches.  But  there 
is  an  inclination  on  the  science  side  especially  to 
dispense  too  readily  with  the  direct  teaching 
which  this  would  Involve.  And  in  practice  the 
results  may  be  likened  to  turning  over  a  large 
correspondence  without  any  system  of  filing  and 
arranging,  to  be  carried  on  by  an  untrained 
worker  to  whom  it  is  all  strange.  One  who  has 
a  firm  belief  In  order  everywhere  will  hunt  for 
some  system  and  learn  it ;  and  the  genius  will 
certainly  invent  one ;  but  most  will  as  surely  be 
Q 


226     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

overwhelmed  and  never  recover  from  a  state  of 
confusion.  Are  we  justified  in  not  giving  at 
least  the  key  to  the  best  system  we  have  ? 

Perhaps  it  is  well  to  turn  again  to  the  diffi- 
culties themselves,  which  have  hitherto  been 
looked  at  from  the  point  of  view  of  their  origin, 
rather  than  as  they  appear  to  the  person  per- 
plexed. For  him  there  is  always  a  concrete 
problem,  some  contradiction  between  a  fact  and 
an  article  of  faith,  which  seems  so  essential  a 
part  of  the  religious  structure  that  the  whole 
must  fall  if  that  cannot  stand.  This  is  not  the 
place  to  deal  with  any  such  problems  in  par- 
ticular. It  is  evident  that  all  have  their  root  in 
a  weakening  of  the  hold  of  spirit.  Holding  to 
what  is  spiritual  as  the  alpha  and  omega  of 
what  is  natural  leaves  little  room  for  contradic- 
tion. Futile  efforts  at  a  quasi-material  explana- 
tion of  spiritual  facts  never  need  confuse  the 
soul.  This  faith  we  may,  I  believe,  most  easily 
protect  from  disturbance  by  giving  early  the  best 
we  can  of  science  (not  limited  to  one  side)  and 
the  fullest  instruction  in  religion  in  our  power, 
taking  care,  above  all,  that  our  training  includes 
specific  exercise  for  that  part  of  *'the  whole 
man  "  to  which  by  careful  guiding  of  the  intellect 
we  strive  to  give  full  play — I  mean  worship. 


XIX 

THE    PRESENT    CONDITION   OF   PHYSICS 
TEACHING   IN   THE    UNITED   STATES 

By  C.  R.  MANN,  Ph.D. 

TWENTY-EIGHT  years  ago  there 
began  in  America  a  reorganisation  of 
the  methods  of  teaching  science.  Prior 
to  1 88 1,  school  and  even  college  labor- 
atories were  almost  unknown.  At  that  time 
educational  theory  had  reached  the  stage  of 
recognising  that  first-hand  knowledge  was  essen- 
tial to  instruction  in  science.  Hence  the  general 
lecture  demonstration  courses,  which  up  to  that 
time  had  been  regarded  as  adequate  courses  in 
science,  and  which  were  supposed  to  give  the 
students  some  comprehension  of  the  broad  under- 
lying principles  of  science,  began  to  be  discounted. 
There  arose  an  insistent  demand  for  laboratories 
and  for  individual  laboratory  work  on  the  part  of 
the  students,  and  educators  and  science  teachers 
were  united  in  the  belief  that  could  laboratories 
be  acquired  the  problems  of  teaching  science 
would  be  solved. 

In  response  to  this  earnest  demand,  laboratories 
227 


228     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

have  been  forthcoming,  until  to-day  there  is 
scarcely  a  secondary  school  or  college  in  the 
country  that  does  not  offer  laboratory  work  of 
some  sort  in  some  of  the  sciences.  Thus  the 
past  thirty  years  has  witnessed  a  tremendous 
advance  in  the  methods  and  facilities  of  science 
teaching,  an  advance  which  has  had  important 
effects  on  other  subjects  as  well,  since  we  now 
hear  of  studying  history,  economics,  and  even 
Latin  by  the  laboratory  method. 

Yet  in  spite  of  the  universal  recognition  of  the 
great  progress  that  has  been  made,  most  educa- 
tional authorities  and  many  science  teachers  them- 
selves are  now  raising  the  question  whether,  in  the 
light  of  past  experiences  in  education,  we  in  the 
United  States  are  now  making  the  best  possible 
use  of  the  laboratory  facilities  thus  acquired — 
whether  the  educational  results  now  being  obtained 
justify  the  time  and  the  money  expended  on  the 
laboratory  work.  We  are  beginning  to  see  that 
the  acquisition  of  laboratories  has  not  by  any 
means  solved  the  problems  of  science  teaching, 
but  that  the  experiences  of  the  past  fifteen  years 
have  shown  that  we  do  not  yet  know  how  to  use 
laboratories  most  effectively,  and  have  served  in 
defining  for  us  some  of  the  other  and  larger 
problems  that  must  now  be  solved  before  science 
shall  be  able  to  make  further  progress  in  elemen- 
tary education.  If  we  would  understand  the 
present  conditions,  we  must  glance  for  a  minute 


PHYSICS  TEACHING  IN  UNITED  STATES     229 

at  several  of  the  larger  factors  that  have  been 
prominent  in  their  development. 

Perhaps  the  most  powerful  influence  in  shaping 
the  courses  of  study,  including  the  laboratory 
work,  in  the  secondary  schools  has  been  that  of 
the  colleges  and  universities.  These  institutions 
have  in  the  past  controlled  the  kind  of  work  that 
was  done  in  the  secondary  schools  through  their 
entrance  requirements  and  their  preparation  of 
teachers  for  those  schools ;  and  this  influence 
has  been  inspiring  and  of  the  greatest  value  in 
establishing  standards  for  the  secondary  schools 
during  their  period  of  adolescence.  Therefore 
the  development  of  science  in  the  colleges  has 
been  reflected  in  the  lower  schools,  so  we  must 
look  to  the  former  for  light  on  the  peculiar 
development  of  the  latter. 

During  the  period  under  consideration  there 
has  grown  up  in  the  colleges  and  universities  a 
profound  reverence  for  the  idol  of  research  ;  and 
this  in  itself  worthy  reverence  has  been  generally 
fostered  and  encouraged  by  university  authorities, 
by  making  it  clear  to  the  teaching  staff  that 
academic  promotion  would  in  large  measure 
depend  on  ability  to  turn  out  work  that  might  be 
classified  as  research.  Those  who  were  pre- 
paring in  colleges  for  teaching  science  in  the 
secondary  schools  very  naturally  became  infected 
with  this  research  idea ;  so  it  was  not  strange 
that  the  phraseology  and  manipulations  of  research 


230     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

made  their  way  into  the  elementary  instruction  in 
science.  College  courses  were  designed  to  give 
training  in  the  technique  of  science  in  preparation 
for  research,  and  secondary-school  courses  were 
modelled  after  the  college  courses.  Thus  the  idea 
of  educating  young  people  through  science  has 
been  for  the  time  being  lost  sight  of ;  and,  carried 
away  by  an  enthusiastic  and  eminently  worthy 
spirit  of  research,  science  teachers,  as  one  of  their 
number  has  aptly  put  it,  have  been  so  busy  trying 
to  teach  science  that  they  have  forgotten  to  teach 
boys  and  girls. 

Had  this  enthusiasm  over  research  resulted  in 
the  infusion,  along  with  the  phraseology,  of  the 
spirit  of  research  into  the  elementary  work,  yet 
greater  benefits  than  those  actually  apparent 
might  have  been  obtained.  What  was  actually 
done,  however,  was  to  transplant  the  forms  and 
technique  of  the  research  laboratory  into  the  high- 
school  laboratory,  with  the  expectation  that  child- 
ren of  high-school  age  would  appreciate  them. 
In  other  words,  until  very  recently  no  effort  has 
been  made  to  develop  the  scientific  habit  of  mind 
in  connection  with  materials  with  which  the 
children  are  familiar,  in  which  they  are  already 
interested,  and  concerning  which  they  have  some 
native  curiosity. 

In  the  modern  physics  course,  for  example, 
the  pupil  is  at  once  set  to  work  measuring  with 
micrometer   calipers,  finding  specific  gravity  by 


PHYSICS  TEACHING  IN  UNITED  STATES     231 

seven  different  methods,  determining  various 
physical  constants,  moduH,  coefficients,  and 
specific  this,  that,  and  the  other ;  all  by  carefully 
expurgated  classical  methods,  and  all  in  terms  of 
a  highly  specialised,  refined,  and  to  him  unusual 
set  of  units.  The  work  is  not  in  itself  bad,  but  is 
beyond  the  range  of  vision  of  most  high-school 
pupils — they  are  getting  too  much  of  a  good  thing. 
The  result  has  been  to  carry  the  work  farther  and 
farther  away  from  the  vital  interests  of  the  live 
boy  and  girl,  and  to  convert  many  school  labora- 
tories into  what  the  Germans  call  '' Sterilizirungs- 
anstalteny  That  very  similar  conditions  have 
prevailed  abroad  must  be  evident  to  careful 
students  of  the  reform  movements  in  France  and 
Germany. 

Another  distinctively  American  influence  that 
must  be  considered,  if  we  would  understand 
present  conditions,  is  the  universal  practice  of 
measuring  the  work  of  the  secondary  schools  in 
terms  of  *' units."  A  unit  course  is  one  in  which 
the  subject  is  studied  five  times  a  week  for  one 
school  year.  Because  the  curriculum  contains 
many  electives,  it  has  been  found  impossible  to 
arrange  a  course  that  meets  twice  a  week  for  one 
year  and  three  times  a  week  the  next,  as  is  done 
with  such  good  effect  abroad.  Hence,  whatever 
physics,  for  example,  a  student  gets  must  be  given 
him  in  one  year.  There  is  no  chance  for  the 
gradual   preparation   of   his   mind   for  the  more 


232     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

difficult  concepts,  and  no  repetition  the  following 
years  by  which  to  clinch  them. 

It  is,  of  course,  a  well-recognised  fact  that  no 
very  fundamental  knowledge  of  any  subject  can 
be  acquired  in  this  limited  amount  of  time  ; 
especially  when  the  pupil  is  trying  to  master  at 
the  same  time  four  different  subjects,  and  when 
each  of  these  subjects  has  been  expanded  to  such 
an  extent  by  the  recent  advances  of  knowledge. 
The  number  of  new  and  often  difficult  concepts 
that  a  student  is  called  upon  to  apprehend  clearly 
each  day  is  far  too  great.  No  child  ought  to  be 
expected  to  grasp  them  all,  and  to  keep  them  all 
distinct  yet  in  ordered  sequence  in  his  mind. 
That  children  do  not,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  gain 
clear  comprehensions  of  the  concepts  presented 
in  science,  and  that  they  are,  therefore,  unable  to 
think  clearly,  thus  missing  one  of  the  greatest 
possible  advantages  of  science  study,  is  evident 
on  every  examination  paper. 

A  particularly  good  opportunity  for  observing 
this  failure  on  the  part  of  science  teaching  was 
recently  given  at  the  University  of  Chicago. 
The  university  offered  a  prize  scholarship  in 
physics,  open  to  competition  to  the  students  of 
all  its  affiliated  schools.  The  schools  naturally 
allowed  only  their  best  product  to  compete.  Yet 
there  were  but  two  of  the  twenty-two  papers 
handed  in  that  did  not  contain  several  statements 
like  the  following,  which  are  taken  from  these 


PHYSICS  TEACHING  IN  UNITED  STATES     233 

prize  papers  :  **  Work  is  the  force  exerted  to  im- 
part motion  to  matter."  *'  I  know  that  red  light 
has  the  longer  wave-length  because  they  always 
do.  It  is  a  known  fact."  **The  force  that  it  will 
take  to  raise  a  hundred  pound  wagon  up  a  5  ft.  in 
100  ft.  inclined  plane  is  2000  lbs."  (which  he 
proceeds  to  prove).  "  The  work  done  equals  the 
amount  of  power  that  can  be  exerted  directly 
against  the  resistance  that  has  to  be  overcome." 
"  By  Archimedes'  principle  a  body  displaces  its 
own  weight  in  water."  "  The  efficiency  of  a 
machine  is  the  amount  of  power  received  divided 
by  the  amount  of  force  exerted  upon  it."  **The 
wave-length  of  red  light  is  longer  because  in  the 
aurora  red  light  stands  out  more  than  green." 

Examples  of  this  sort  show  clearly  that  the 
pupils  have  not  obtained  from  their  scientific  study 
clear  and  definite  concepts  of  the  things  studied, 
so  that  clear  thinking,  which  science,  if  anything, 
should  develop,  is  impossible.  If  quantitative 
work  means  the  acquirement  of  definite  and 
clearly  definable  concepts,  which  is  the  generally 
accepted  idea  of  it,  then  the  present  type  of 
quantitative  work,  in  which  so  great  emphasis  is 
placed  on  measurement  for  its  own  sake,  fails  to 
attain  the  result  sought.  As  stated  above,  the 
so-called  exact  measurements  are  but  the  forms 
and  technique  of  research  without  its  inner  spirit, 
and  so  the  teaching  often  degenerates  into  a 
mechanical  operation. 


234     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

A  careful  study  of  the  science  teaching  of  the 
present  time  in  America  reveals  a  number  of 
causes  for  its  partial  failure  to  inspire  youth  and 
to  implant  definite  concepts.  Some  of  the  more 
important  suggestions  as  to  what  these  causes 
may  be  are  the  following,  each  of  which  suggests 
a  line  of  educational  investigation  which  must  be 
followed  up  experimentally  before  science  teaching 
will  attain  its  greatest  efficiency  : — 

I.  The  concepts  taught  may  be  intrinsically 
too  difficult  to  be  adequately  grasped  by 
children  of  school  age.  2.  The  concepts 
may  be  too  numerous  for  the  time  avail- 
able, and  so  may  follow  one  another  in  too 
rapid  succession  to  allow  of  their  being 
clearly  grasped  as  they  flit  by.  3.  The 
concepts  have  no  appreciable  significance 
for  the  pupils,  in  that  they  are  too  remotely 
connected  with  or  derived  from  their  daily 
lives,  and  too  little  applicable  in  the 
solution  of  their  immediate  problems. 
4.  Passing  an  examination  may  be  the 
purpose  of  the  study,  leading  to  an 
attempt  to  memorize  words  rather  than  to 
grasp  ideas.  5.  The  concepts  are  not 
understood  by  the  teacher  or  clearly  pre- 
sented in  the  text,  because  of  the  muddy 
condition  of  present  metaphysics  and  the 
lack  of  any  clear  and  comprehensive  know- 
ledge of  the  processes  of  scientific  reason- 


PHYSICS  TEACHING  IN  UNITED  STATES     235 

ing.     6.  The    seeds   of  the  concepts  are 
not  sown  early  in  the  school  life,  and  their 
growth  is  not   fostered  by  repetition  and 
use  of  them  over  a  period  of  years  ;    so 
that  they  have  no  concrete  foundation  in 
the  personal  experiences  of  the  child,  but 
are  first  presented  to  him  abruptly  either 
as  definitions  or  laws,  or  through  a  single 
experience  with  some,  to  him,  bizarre  piece 
of  apparatus. 
The  limits  placed  on  this  article  will  not  permit 
of  an   extended  investigation   of   these   various 
suggestions.     In  closing,  in  order  to  dispel  any 
impression   that  this   is  a  too  gloomy  or  pessi- 
mistic  view   of    the    present    situation,     I    will 
forecast    the    future    by    stating    some    of   the 
problems    that    have   been   defined   by  the  ex- 
periences of  the  past  twenty  years,  and  mention- 
ing  the  lines  of  work  that  have  recently  been 
opened  up  in  America  looking  toward  the  solu- 
tion of   these   problems.     When  we   recall  that 
the  clear  definition  of  a  scientific  problem  is  half 
the  battle,  we  recognise  how  great  a  contribution 
to  the  future  efficiency  of  science  teaching  has 
already  been  made. 

There  have  been  formed  in  the  past  three  or 
four  years  in  America  a  dozen  or  more  national 
educational  organisations,  each  dedicated  to  a 
scientific  study  of  some  one-  of  the  more  im- 
portant of  the  present   problems.     The   specific 


236    BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

problems  attacked,  and  the  organisations  that 
have  attacked  them,  are,  for  science,  the  follow- 
ing :— 

1.  How  can  nature  study  be  organised  in  the 
earlier  grades  so  as  to  preserve  the  investigating 
spirit  of  childhood  and  yet  to  lay  in  the  individual 
child  through  his  own  concrete  experiences  a 
firm  foundation  for  later  scientific  and  technical 
work  ?  The  American  Nature  Study  Society 
has  just  taken  up  work  on  this  problem. 

2.  How  may  the  study  of  the  industries  and 
industrial  work  be  organised  and  treated  in  the 
later  grades  so  as  to  foster  the  scientific  habit  of 
mind  and  to  store  up  in  the  individual  those  con- 
crete experiences  that  are  essential  to  his  own 
immediate  growth  and  to  laying  a  firm  founda- 
tion for  his  later  study  of  science,  pure  and 
applied  ?  This  is  one  of  the  problems  now 
before  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial 
Education. 

3.  How  may  the  work  in  the  secondary  schools 
be  reorganised  so  as  to  foster  the  habit  of  solving 
problems  scientifically,  to  use  effectively  the 
materials  gathered  in  the  earlier  work,  and  to 
train  in  habits  of  clear  scientific  thinking  ?  This 
problem  is  that  of  the  American  Federation  of 
Teachers  of  the  Mathematical  and  the  Natural 
Sciences. 

4.  How  may  educational  standards  be  defined 
and   enforced    so   as  to    foster  and  not  impede 


PHYSICS  TEACHING  IN  UNITED  STATES     237 

effective  growth  in  educational  efficiency  ?  The 
National  Bureau  of  Education  is  considering 
this  problem. 

5.  How  may  colleges  and  universities  re- 
orofanise  their  instruction  in  science  so  that  a 
broad  conception  of  the  activities  of  science  may 
be  ofiven  to  those  who  do  not  become  scientists  ? 
This  subject  is  being  agitated,  but  no  organisa- 
tion has  as  yet  seriously  attacked  it. 

6.  What  may  colleges  and  universities  do  to 
advance  the  theory  and  practice  of  education  and 
to  train  more  effectively  the  teachers  for  the 
lower  schools  ?  The  Association  of  College 
Teachers  of  Education  exists  for  this  problem. 

7.  Is  the  true  scientist  a  realist,  a  materialist, 
an  idealist,  a  pragmatist,  or  what  ?  What  are 
the  philosophic  foundations  of  modern  science? 
What  is  the  modern  logic  ?  While  I  know  of  no 
society  in  America  that  is  devoted  exclusively 
to  the  study  of  these  problems  for  science,  the 
great  wealth  of  current  literature  on  these  topics, 
especially  in  France  and  Germany,  shows  that 
they  are  under  serious  and  very  active  con- 
sideration. 

The  present  is  thus  a  time  of  intense  activity 
in  education.  For  science  it  is  a  time  of  great 
opportunities.  On  every  side  the  opinion  is  ex- 
pressed that  these  new  problems  may  be  solved 
only  by  the  scientific  method  of  experiment.  So 
experimental  schools — educational  laboratories — 


238     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

are  beginning  to  appear ;  and  the  number  of  able 
men  who  are  turning  to  this  scientific  study  of 
education  is  rapidly  increasing.  Popular  demand 
for  science  of  the  right  sort  is  on  the  increase, 
and  its  value  as  an  educational  agency  will  in- 
crease in  proportion  as  science  teachers  apply 
their  own  methods  to  their  teaching  problems. 
We  may  therefore  look  forward  to  the  future 
with  confidence,  well  knowing  that  the  results  of 
the  present  tendencies  will  be  that  the  study  of 
education  will  become  a  science,  and  the  study 
of  science  an  education. 


XX 

SCHOOL     SCIENCE     IN    GERMANY 

By  THE   EDITOR 

TH  E  writer's  interest  in  this  subject  was 
first  aroused  years  ago  in  Giessen,  when 
a  schoolmaster  of  that  town  produced  a 
copy  of  the  Zeitschrift  fur  den  Physik- 
alisckeft  und  Chemischen  Unterricht^  and  enquired 
whether  we  had  such  journals  in  England.  Con- 
fession was  made  that  the  equivalent  hardly 
existed,  although  indeed  science  teaching  was 
touched  upon  in  this  and  that  weekly  or  monthly. 
Then  the  overwhelming  answer :  "  But  we  have 
a  journal  for  every  subject." 

Returned  to  England,  and  teaching  again,  it 
seemed  virtuous  to  order  the  paper  specially 
(almost  exclusively)  devoted  to  the  teaching  of 
physics ;  and  it  cannot  be  questioned  that  the 
Zeitschrift  provides  interesting  reading  for  the  re- 
flective teacher,  as  well  as  numberless  experimental 
tips  for  those  who  are  ready  to  try  them.  These 
notes  on  the  growth  and  present  state  of  science 
teaching  in  Germany  are  largely  due  to  its  help  ; 
and  if  this  article  passes  on  to  others  the  same 

339 


240     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING  | 

i 

interest  in  comparisons  of  a  suggestive  sort,  it     | 
will  have  done  its  work  and  will  have  the  Zei^- 
schrift  to  thank. 

To  lead  right  up  to  the  present  from  historical 
beginnings  would  take  us  too  far :  an  account  of    : 
that  side  of  the  question  is  to  be  found  in  a  recent     ; 
paper  by  J.  Norrenberg,^  among  others.     From 
this  are  taken  a  few  important  facts  in  the  later     \ 
stages  of  the  development. 

At  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  schools 
were  beginning  to  feel  the  effect  o{\htAufkldrung, 
the  movement  which  led  to  an  educational  ideal     i 
of  a  more  robust  and  active  humanity  than  that 
represented  in  the  litterata  pietas  of  the  earlier    \ 
Gymnasia,  or  classical  schools ;  ^  and   they  were 
also  affected  by  the  systematic  work  of  Linnaeus 
in  the  realm  of  natural  history.     Both  influences     • 
tended  to  make  a  place  for  teaching  in  science,     i 
and  by  1800  definite  hours  for  science  work  were     j 
set   apart   in  many  of  the   Prussian  Gymnasia.     ! 
After  the  fall  of  Napoleon  there  were  general     I 
reorganisations  of  the  country's  forces,  including     • 
its  educational  system  :  and  it  is  worthy  of  note 
that   in    Siivern's    Prussian  Code,   of   18 16,   the     i 
natural  sciences  were  given  two  hours  a  week  in    i 

^  Geschichte    des    naturwissenschaftlichen    Unterrichts    in    den      ! 
Loheren  Schulen  Deutchlands.    Trubner,  1904.  , 

2  For  a  fuller  account  of  German  educational  terms,  cf  Paulsen,     j 
German  Education^  tr.  Lorenz  (Fisher  Unwin,  1908),  preface,  pp. 
xii-xx.  i 


SCHOOL  SCIENCE   IN   GERMANY  241 

the  gymnasia,  and  a  place  in  the  syllabus  of  the 
leaving  examination.  Materials  and  teachers, 
however,  were  not  available  in  full  tale,  and  the 
vigour  with  which  educational  authorities  pressed 
home  at  this  time  the  importance  of  education, 
led  to  a  great  deal  of  overwork  in  the  schools ;  so 
that  when,  after  a  long  trial,  the  code  was  re- 
constructed in  1856,  natural  history  and  physics 
disappeared  from  the  leaving  examination  of  the 
Gymnasia,  and  they  have  never  been  put  back. 

By  that  time,  however,  another  type  of  school, 
the  Realschule — a  type  developed  from  a  variety 
of  technical  school  of  a  grade  lower  than  the 
Gymnasium — had  developed  into  an  institution 
aiming  at  a  sound  general  education  on  lines  less 
classical  than  those  previously  in  vogue  ;  and  the 
Realschule  received  as  such  official  recognition 
in  1859.  Such  schools  had  a  special  interest  in 
scientific  knowledge,  and  their  coming  gave  to 
school  science  a  position  and  an  opening  of  which 
it  has  in  many  ways  availed  itself  during  the  last 
half-century. 

Norrenberg  gives  an  interesting  account  of  the 
programme  of  a  Realschule  at  Meseritz  in  Prus- 
sia in  1 85 1.  We  find  that  out  of  forty-five  periods 
a  week  in  the  first  class — such  was  the  substantial 
allowance — two  were  given  to  physics,  three  to 
chemistry,  two  to  natural  history,  and  three  to 
four  hours  to  "technology,"  whilst  in  the  second 
class  eight  hours  in  all,  in  the  third  class  seven 


242     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

hours  were  devoted  to  natural  science.  It  may 
be  supposed  that  the  work  done  in  such  a  school 
— democratic  in  tone  as  the  Realschulen  were — 
was  very  much  of  the  useful,  practical,  en- 
cyclopaedic sort,  but  in  high  places  there  was  a 
movement  on  foot  to  emphasise  the  formal,  mind- 
training  side  of  the  work  and  the  human  element 
in  all  knowledge  of  the  material  world.  The 
Prussian  scheme  of  1859  (Wiese's  Code),  which 
gave  the  Realschulen  their  position  as  institutions 
giving  a  general  education,  contains  the  following 
words — much  quoted  among  writers  whose  main 
interest  is  on  the  humanistic  side  : — 

"As  to  the  success  of  Realschulen,  every- 
thing depends  on  their  avoiding  the  danger 
which  comes  of  much  contact  with  a  wealth  of 
material  things  and  of  empirical  knowledge, 
when  it  is  not  impressed  upon  the  student  that 
the  deeper  ground  of  all  reality  lies  in  the 
mental  content  and  value  of  things,  and  that 
the  visible,  tangible  world  rests  upon  the 
invisible  and  spiritual." 

The  exact  sciences  began,  from  this  time,  a 
steady  upward  course ;  new  teachers  were  re- 
quired, new  demands  were  made  on  the  uni- 
versities, new  professorships  created,  and  new 
laboratories  built.  The  rise  of  a  number  of 
science  masters  who  had  themselves  been  able 
to  enter  the  university  from  the  Realschule  gave 


SCHOOL   SCIENCE    IN    GERMANY  243 

a  new  impetus  towards  the  realising  of  Wiese's 
humanistic  aim ;  for  men  who  had  themselves 
gained  many  of  their  ideas  about  life  and  living 
in  the  study  of  the  material  world  were  much 
more  likely  to  convey  these  ideas  to  others. 
Such  men  saw  the  need  for  equal  opportunity 
in  all  types  of  school  which  could  reasonably 
expect  to  send  boys  on  to  the  university,  and 
urged  the  humanistic  value  of  their  own  subjects. 

As  an  example  of  the  defence  of  the  "  human- 
istic "  element  in  science  teaching  we  quote  a 
paper  by  Hofler,  which  appeared  in  the  second 
volume  (1888)  of  the  Zeitschrift  already  men- 
tioned. Waving  aside  the  view  that  the  bearing 
of  science  on  latter-day  life  and  industry  can  be 
defended  as  ground  enough  for  its  inclusion  in 
the  school  course,  the  author  goes  on  to  say  that 
the  aim  of  the  realists  is  a  clear  grasp  and  en- 
lightened valuation  of  the  actual,  both  in  mind 
and  matter.  Such  realism  may  oppose  itself  to 
formalism  and  verbalism,  but  does  not  clash  with 
any  true  humanism. 

This  feature,  the  humanistic  value  of  science 
teaching,  has  been  the  key-note  of  much  recent 
work,  and  so  we  shall  follow  Hofler  a  little  further 
into  the  details  of  the  special  subject  of  his  paper 
— physics  teaching,  a  matter  on  which  he  is  an 
accepted  authority. 

School  physics  is  to  be  mind-training,  with  in- 
ductive  logic   as    its    peculiar   sphere — teaching 


244     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING  \ 

complementary  to  the  mathematician's  usual  train- 
ing in  deductive.  It  is  urged  that  the  work  gives  ] 
facility  with  quite  other  subject-matter,  and  he  i 
quotes  with  satisfaction  a  former  pupil's  report,  that  ; 
the  methods  of  his  school  physics  had  come  use-  ■ 
fully  to  mind  when  he  had  had  to  take  sides  on  a  ' 
question  of  political  economy.  Hofler  explains  i 
that  the  best  method  for  extracting  this  inductive  \ 
training  is  to  hold  as  closely  as  may  be  to  the  ' 
line  of  historical  advance,  getting  help  from  such  i 
studies  as  those  of  Ernst  Mach;^  and  that  it  ■ 
becomes  the  teacher's  practical  problem  to  adjust 
the  rival  claims  of  the  historic  and  systematic  j 
orders,  and  to  find  a  middle  path.  The  history  i 
of  physics  is  to  be  not  only  a  means,  but  an  end  ' 
in  itself;  and  Hofler  suggests,  as  an  example  of  ! 
this,  a  course  on  the  great  astronomers  (as  might 
be  found  for  English  readers  in  Lodge's  Pioneers  : 
of  Science).  The  source  of  much  ill-success  in  ' 
the  past  is  to  be  avoided,  namely,  that  science 
has  been  presented  in  ready-made  doses,  without  \ 
enough  consideration  as  to  the  fitness  and  state  \ 
of  development  of  the  receiving  minds;  and  so  ; 
nature  is  first  to  be  introduced  as  a  whole  to  the  ■ 
heart  and  mind  of  the  child,  before  he  is  led  into  \ 
that  artificial  way  of  ordered  enquiry  which  man-  ! 
kind  has  only  achieved  after  centuries.^  At  its  I 
best  and  highest,  physics  is  to  be  not  only  the  \ 
type  of  an  exact  science,  but  a  medium  through  ; 

^  Cf.  Dr.  Mann's  views,  expressed  in  the  foregoing  paper.  \ 


SCHOOL   SCIENCE   IN   GERMANY  245 

which  man  perceives  the  beauty  of  nature  and 
its  harmony  in  relation  to  himself — **  Science 
so  modestly  playing  a  part  hand-in-hand  with 
the  great  literatures  of  Greece  and  Germany, 
whose  ideals  are  the  highest  the  educator  has 
to  teach." 

Such  a  declaration  of  faith  would  probably  be 
signed  by  a  number  of  leading  German  school- 
masters at  the  present  time  ;  it  asks  in  general 
for  humanistic  value,  and  in  particular  for  critical 
completeness  in  the  higher  classes.  Indeed, 
several  recent  meetings  have  considered  the  prob- 
lem of  adding  the  **  Introduction  to  Philosophy" 
to  the  science  course,  such  matters  as  the  rela- 
tion of  the  psychology  of  the  sense-organs  to  the 
study  of  physiology,  the  study  of  such  concepts 
as  matter,  force,  causality,  giving  easy  chances 
of  dove-tailing. 

With  these  wide  aims  the  need  for  severe 
selection  of  material  arises  :  and  the  tendency  is 
towards  uniformity  of  excision  and  keeping  in 
line  with  some  standard  book,  which  emphasises 
important  matter  by  change  of  type,  confines 
itself  on  the  whole  to  the  simplest  material,  and 
treats  it  in  the  most  complete  way,  since  this  is 
best  for  the  grasping  of  the  formal  side.^ 

The  latest  summary  of  this  work  of  selection 
is  to  be  found  in  the  report  of  the  Meran  Com- 

^  Hofler's  Physik,  mil  Zusdtzen  aus  tier  angewandten  Mathe- 
fnatik^  aus  der  Logik  und  Psychologic  (Vieweg,  1904)  does  this 
for  physics.     Eng.  tr.  in  the  press. 


246     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

mission,^  where  it  occurs  in  conjunction  with  a 
statement  of  the  amount  of  time  which  those 
interested  in  science  claim  for  it.  The  scheme 
of  hours  drawn  up  by  the  Commission  has  been 
adopted  for  future  Oberrealschulen  in  Bavaria, 
and  these  appear  as  follows  : — 

HOURS   PER  WEEK 


Class 

I 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI      VII 

VIII 

IX 

Geography     . 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

I 

I 

Mathematics  . 

4 

4 

4 

5 

5 

5 

7 

6 

6 

Physics 

— 

— 

— 

— 

3 

3 

3 

4 

4 

Chemistry  and 

Mineralogy . 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

2 

3 

3 

3 

Biology     and 

Geology 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Other  subjects 

17 

17 

17 

17 

i6 

15 

13 

14 

14 

This  scheme  rather  more  than  fulfils,  in  fact, 
the  requirements  of  the  Commission  in  regard  to 
the  **  modern  "  schools.  Something  is  also  said 
by  the  Commission  as  to  the  teaching  of  science 
in  the  Gymnasien.  It  is  urged  that  a  good 
grounding  in  natural  science  is  highly  necessary 
also  to  boys  attending  schools  of  this  type,  at 
least  so  long  as  such  schools  are  in  the  majority 
and  educate  the  majority  of  future  directing 
classes.  As  a  first  step,  it  is  contended,  the  two 
hours  a  week  devoted  to  physics  should  become 
three,  so  that  ''at  least  in  one  department  natural 

1  Commission  appointed  by  the  Association  of  German  Scien- 
tists and  Physicians,  Meran,  1905. 


SCHOOL  SCIENCE   IN   GERMANY  247 

science  should  exert  to  the  full  its  educative 
value."  The  commissioners  confess  that  they 
are  unable  to  cope  with  the  problem  of  teaching 
other  branches  of  science  in  the  classical  schools, 
except  by  suggesting  the  sacrifice  of  more  time 
now  devoted  to  classics  (a  point  impossible  to  be 
gained  at  present),  and  so  they  content  themselves 
with  pointing  out  to  the  authorities  a  **  yawning 
gap  "  in  the  science  work  of  the  Gymnasien. 

Though  the  sympathy  of  the  teacher  of  science 
will  instinctively  go  out  to  such  as  make  this 
claim,  it  may  be  questioned  whether  the  modern 
schoolboy  (and  especially  the  German  schoolboy) 
is  not  already  too  much  pressed  by  the  onrush 
of  an  **  all-sided  "  education.  Kerschensteiner^ 
cries  out  bitterly  that  the  structure  of  the  new 
Bavarian  Oberrealschulen  is  supported  on  four 
pillars — as  many  pillars  as  there  are  sections  in 
the  qualifying  examinations  for  secondary  teachers 
— and  that  if  there  had  been  twenty  teachers' 
departments  there  would  have  been  twenty  main 
columns  on  which  to  build  the  education  of  the 
miserable  young  victims.  All  education,  he  says, 
should  have  one  main  support,  whether  ancient  or 
modern  languages,  science,  technology  or  art. 
Such  great  ranges  of  intellectual  activity  demand 
in  their  school  treatment — one  as  much  as 
another — emphasis  on  practical  moral  notions  of 
perfection,  of  justice,  of  goodwill. 

^  Grundfragen  der  Schulorganisatioti.    Trubner,  1 907. 


248     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

Many  of  these  alternative  systems  are  not 
easy  to  realise  in  practice  :  probably  some  sort 
of  directly  linguistic  or  historical  study  will  claim 
an  important  place  in  all  education  for  some  time 
to  come.  But  Kerschensteiner's  view  may  well 
remind  us  that  by  crowding  in  an  extra  hour  for 
a  neglected  subject  we  shall  not  necessarily  im- 
prove the  whole ;  and  it  may  be  that  the  position 
of  science  in  the  Gymnasia  as  a  non-tested  option 
is  as  good  an  arrangement  as  is  practically  possible : 
especially  if  we  might  assume  that  the  work  on 
the  classical  side  aims  at  supplementing  in  some 
way  the  scanty  experience  of  the  concrete  and 
inductive,  as,  for  instance,  in  archaeological  work.       ; 

The  main  principles  laid  down  by  the  Com-      : 
mission  for  the  teaching  of  physics  in  all  sorts  of 
schools  are  three  :  That  physics  should  be  taught 
as   a   natural   science,   and  not  as  a  branch   of      i 
mathematics  (since  the  mathematics  and  physics      | 
are  often  taught  by  one  man  this  contention  is      ! 
not  so  unnecessary  as  it  may  seem) ;  that  it  should 
be  taught  so  as  to  serve  as  a  pattern  for  methods      \ 
of  winning  new  knowledge  in  any  experimental      ' 
science ;  and  that  regularly  organised  practice  in 
observation  and  experiment  at  first  hand  is  re-      \ 
quisite    for    all    scholars    (a   greater   novelty   in      j 
Germany  than  in  Great  Britain,  and  more  fully      1 
discussed  in  the  sequel).  ^ 

The  Commission  also  makes  full  recommenda-      | 
tions  concerning  chemistry  and  biology,  and  it 


SCHOOL  SCIENCE   IN   GERMANY  249 

will  be  seen  from  the  scheme  of  hours  given 
above  that  in  the  upper  classes  time  is  devoted, 
in  the  *'  modern  "  schools,  to  each  of  these  sub- 
jects as  well  as  physics.  In  chemistry  the  practi- 
cal element  is  not  yet  so  strongly  represented  as 
in  English  schools  ;  but  here,  as  well  as  in  physics, 
this  problem  is  much  discussed,  and  individual 
teachers  are  working  out  their  own  courses  in 
their  own  way  ;  rediscovering  points  of  method 
and  management  that  may  be  old  and  familiar 
to  English  readers,  but  always  with  a  broad 
philosophic  interest  that  gives  the  impression  of 
building — slowly  perhaps — on  firm  foundations. 
Biology  in  the  upper  classes  is  only  now  acquiring 
the  position  it  claims  ;  in  the  days  of  rising 
Darwinism  it  was  to  such  a  degree  suspect  among 
the  orthodox  in  high  places  that  in  the  code  of 
1882  it  was  ruled  out.  The  average  time  allotted 
to  it  at  present  is  not  great ;  and  although  all 
will  agree  that  some  acquaintance  with  modern 
biological  theory  and  practice  is  of  the  utmost 
value  in  training  a  boy  as  a  thinking  citizen  (a 
point  far  too  little  recognised  in  English  schools), 
it  may  be  impossible  to  find  room  for  it  in  every 
boy's  time-table, — except  such  urgent  matters  of 
personal  and  public  hygiene  as  can  brook  no 
hindrance.  Let  us  hope  that  at  least  some  pupils, 
whose  keenness  lies  that  way,  will  get  a  ground- 
ing good  enough  to  spread  among  the  rising 
general  public  a  lively  and  critical  interest  in  the 


250     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

attacks  of  science  on  the  problem  of  life,  of  all 
problems  most  fascinating  and  most  formidable. 
Among  girls  especially,  where  the  mathematico- 
physical  and  engineering  interests  do  not  elbow 
their  way  so  ill-manneredly  to  the  fore,  it  should 
be  possible  to  reach  a  high  standard  of  biological 
attainment ;  but  time  must  elapse  before  the 
higher  education  of  women  in  Germany  reaches 
dimensions  comparable  with  that  of  the  men. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  question  '*  in  the  air  " 
in  Germany  at  the  present  time  among  science 
teachers  is  that  of  practical  classes.  Noack,  in 
Giessen,  was  one  of  the  first  to  start  such  work, 
the  experiments  following  the  demonstration  and 
discussion  in  the  ordinary  classes  ;  later  K.  T. 
Fischer,  by  his  enquiries  into  the  methods  adopted 
in  England,  America,  and  other  countries,  and 
by  his  numerous  publications  on  the  subject,  has 
helped  to  create  a  body  of  public  opinion,  which, 
though  it  does  not  accept  such  extreme  heuristic 
views  as  those  of  Armstrong,  is  at  least  ready 
to  put  the  practical  exercises  first,  and  make  them 
the  basis  of  the  whole  work.  The  chief  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  are  the  cost  of  equipment  and 
the  training  of  teachers  in  the  practical  work. 
Fischer^  sketches  out  a  useful  extension  of  the 
ordinary  course  of  university  lectures  in  physics, 
which  should  give,  in  four  hours  a  week  for  three 
years,  a  very  good  grounding  in   the   teaching 

^  Zeitschrift  fur  den  Phys.  und  Chetn.  Unterricht^  '907)  P-  i6. 


SCHOOL   SCIENCE   IN   GERMANY  251 

aspects  of  the  subject.  His  extra  course  includes : 
lectures  on  the  growth  of  physical  concepts  (cf. 
Mach  s  writings) ;  exercises  in  manipulation ; 
students'  demonstrations  of  class  experiments ;  dis- 
cussions regarding  recent  researches;  and,  where 
possible,  a  piece  of  research  work  (three  days  a 
week  for  one  year).  Then  the  student  spends 
at  least  a  year  as  assistant  in  a  secondary  school 
before  he  is  appointed  to  an  independent  post. 

There  seems  no  doubt  that  Germany  must 
tackle  this  question  of  training  the  schoolmaster 
who  is  to  be  experimentalist  and  pedagogue  in 
one  :  and  when  done  we  may  be  sure  it  will  be 
done  thoroughly.  If  such  teachers  only  succeed 
in  escaping  a  too  rigidly  uniform  and  economical 
organisation,  the  prospects  are  very  hopeful : 
given  that  the  schoolboy  is  not  worked  hard 
enough  to  lose  his  health  and  mental  ''spring." 
We  may  confidently  expect  in  the  next  generation 
not  only  men  of  free  and  independent  judgment 
with  a  reverence  for  natural  law,  and  counting 
among  their  number  many  who  will  have  been 
inspired  to  widen  the  bounds  of  mental  and 
natural  science,  but  also — a  word  to  the  hard- 
headed — men  who  will  carry  the  method  of  exact 
observation  and  inference  into  fresh  regions  of 
application  and  industry  :  wielding,  with  renewed 
skill  and  renewed  zeal,  powers  they  already 
inherit,  powers  of  unfathomed  import  in  the 
economic  conquest  of  the  world. 


XXI 

SOME    PRACTICAL   NOTES    ON   THE 
PLANNING    OF   SCIENCE    LABORATORIES 

By  T.    H.    RUSSELL,    M.A. 

MANY  are  the  infallible  signs  of  the 
widespread  extension  of  science  teach- 
ing in  schools  and  other  educational 
institutions  ;  and  this  teaching  is  not 
confined  merely  to  the  holding  of  classes  and 
lectures,  but  as  time  goes  on,  more  and  more 
practical  work,  work  done  actually  by  the  students 
themselves,  is  being  carried  on. 

This  increase  of  instruction  in  science  has,  of 
course,  necessitated  the  provision  of  suitable  ac- 
commodation, but  although  an  endless  number  of 
science-rooms  and  laboratories  have  been,  and  are 
being,  fitted  up,  the  literature  bearing  on  this 
subject  is,  by  no  means,  increasing  proportionately. 
This  is  due  to  various  reasons,  such  as  the 
changes  that  the  methods  of  science  teaching  have 
undergone,  variation  in  the  requirements  and  con- 
ditions in  individual  instances,  the  personal  views 
of  different  teachers  or  governing  bodies,  etc. 
Nevertheless,  although  it  would  be  unwise,  if  it 

252 


PLANNING  OF  SCIENCE  LABORATORIES     253 

were  practicable,  to  attempt  to  standardise  methods 
of  planning  and  fitting-up  science-rooms  and 
laboratories  for  teaching  definite  branches  of 
science,  it  is  considered  desirable  to  include  in 
this  series  of  articles  on  science  in  schools  a  few 
practical  notes  on  fittings  for  science  teaching. 

Firstly,  let  us  consider  the  building  or  rooms 
in  which  the  work  is  to  be  carried  on.  It  can 
be  hardly  necessary  to  warn  the  reader  of  the 
dangers  of  converting  existing  rooms  into  labora- 
tories for  practical  work.  How  frequently  the 
result  is  unsatisfactory,  if  not  actually  disastrous, 
can  readily  be  seen  by  inspecting  such  conver- 
sions in  one's  own  neighbourhood.  Doubtless  the 
cause  is  more  often  lack  of  funds  rather  than 
mere  ignorance.  One  sees  drains  and  pipes  in 
awkward  positions  and  unsightly  profusion, 
draught-flues  much  in  evidence  and  equally 
ineffective,  windows  and  doors  unsuitable  in  size 
and  inconvenient  in  situation.  Then  we  have  the 
instance  of  the  school  that  wanted  a  chapel  but 
built  a  laboratory,  because  they  could  get  a  grant 
from  their  County  Council  for  the  latter  but  not 
for  the  former  ;  afterwards  converting  the  labora- 
tory into  a  chapel.  Who  knows  but  that  chapels 
are  not  sometimes  converted  into  chemical  labora- 
tories ! 

Much  good  work,  if  the  teaching  is  sound  and 
on  the  right  lines,  can  be  done  amidst  simple  and 
inexpensive  surroundings;  in  fact,  not  infrequently 


254     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE   TEACHING 

success  is  inversely  proportional  to  the  amount 
of  polished  mahogany  and  plate-glass  and  the 
palatial  appearance  of  the  laboratory.  On  the 
other  hand,  apart  from  the  efficiency  of  the  build- 
ing, the  moral  and  physical  effect  on  the  students 
of  a  well-arranged,  properly  ventilated  and  lighted 
room  cannot  be  ignored. 

Before  the  erection  of  a  new  science-room  or 
laboratory  is  commenced,  the  details  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  fittings,  ventilation,  lighting,  and 
heating  should  be  fully  considered  and  settled. 
It  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  the  rooms  to  be 
built  first,  and  then,  when  completed,  the  question 
of  the  fittings,  etc.,  to  be  worked  out  by  somebody 
else — teacher,  architect,  or  school -furnishing  firm 
— called  in  only  at  the  last  moment. 

Nowadays  the  modern  tendency  here,  as  in 
domestic  and  other  buildings,  is  simplicity,  and 
the  key-note  is  simplicity  in  character  as  well  as 
in  arrangement.  The  fittings  should  be,  as  far 
as  possible,  of  an  inexpensive  nature,  but,  unlike 
much  of  the  present-day  household  furniture, 
which  is  suitable  only  for  these  times  of  continual 
change  and  unrest,  they  must  be  substantial. 

It  will  probably  be  advantageous  to  consider 
here  those  science-rooms  and  laboratories  which 
are  intended  more  especially  for  work  in  elemen- 
tary science,  chemistry,  and  physics.  We  may 
note,  in  passing,  that  in  secondary  schools  where 
the   mixed   system    is   avoided,    that    is,    where 


PLANNING  OF  SCIENCE  LABORATORIES     255 

separate  class-rooms,  etc.,  are  provided  for  the 
boys  and  girls,  it  would  not  be  necessary  to 
duplicate  "rooms  for  special  instruction  in  science, 
art,  etc."  The  number  of  hours  given  to  these 
subjects  is  so  small  that  some  arrangement  can 
generally  be  made  for  such  rooms  to  be  used  by 
the  boys  and  girls  in  turn. 

When  school  laboratories  are  being  planned  it 
is  very  desirable  that  both  future  enlargement 
and  changes  are  kept  in  mind,  as  these  are  so 
often  required  afterwards  owing  to  increase  of 
students  or  alterations  in  the  methods  and 
character  of  the  teaching.  The  fittings  must  be 
arranged  so  as  to  give  the  instructor  ease  of 
supervision  of,  and  access  to,  the  pupils,  and  the 
latter  the  least  possible  excuse  for  constantly 
moving  from  one  part  of  the  laboratory  to 
another.  The  work  of  the  laboratory-attendant 
and  the  cleaner,  who  have  to  keep  the  room  in 
a  clean,  neat,  and  orderly  condition,  must  also  be 
considered  and  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Within  so  limited  a  space  it  is  not  proposed  to 
attempt  to  describe  all  the  fittings  for  chemical 
and  physical  laboratories,  but  merely  to  point 
out  some  of  the  general  principles  to  be  ob- 
served. 

Science-rooms  for  elementary  work  are  usually 
provided  with  a  simple  type  of  bench  for  the 
pupils  and  a  long  table  for  the  teacher,  with  some 
fixed  shelves  or  short  benches  against  the  walls ; 


256     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

cupboards  and  drawers,  a  blackboard,  and  one  or 
more  sinks  complete  the  essentials.  The  benches 
should  be  strong  and  steady,  but  narrow,  that  is, 
not  more  than  twenty-eight  or  thirty  inches  wide, 
with  the  pupils  on  one  side  only,  so  that  they  all 
face  the  teacher.  But  the  space  between  the 
benches,  say,  at  least  two  feet  nine  inches,  must 
allow  the  teacher  access  to  each  pupil.  Some  illus- 
trations of  special  fittings  for  science-rooms  were 
given  in  the  writer's  Planning  and  Fitting-up  of 
Chemical  and  Physical  Laboratories y  published  by 
Batsford  in  1903.  Small  schools  are  frequently 
provided  with  only  one  room  for  the  whole  of  the 
science-teaching,  and  therefore  require  special 
modifications,  but  the  larger  ones,  where  more 
advanced  work  is  done,  have  separate  rooms  for 
chemistry,  physics,  botany,  biology,  etc. 

It  is  usually  stated  that  chemical  laboratories 
should  be  lofty,  but  although  this  may  lessen  the 
unpleasantness  of  the  unavoidable  fumes  and 
smells,  it  renders  the  efficient  ventilation  and 
warming  somewhat  more  difficult.  The  labora- 
tory may  be  lighted  by  skylights  or  windows,  or  by 
both ;  the  windows  should  be  kept  high,  at  least 
five  feet  above  the  floor,  especially  as  wall-space 
is  most  valuable  for  shelving,  etc.  Light  from  the 
right  or  left  hand  is  better  than  front  or  back  light 
for  work  at  the  benches.  The  laboratories  and 
lecture-room  are  very  often  placed  on  the  top 
floor  in  secondary  schools  ;  this  arrangement  has 


PLANNING  OF  SCIENCE  LABORATORIES     257 

the  advantage  of  making  it  easier  to  obtain  a 
particularly  good  light  for  them. 

Ventilation  that  is  sufficient  for  ordinary  class- 
rooms may  be  insufficient  for  large  chemical 
laboratories,  but  the  system,  whether  "natural" 
or  mechanical,  that  is  best  to  employ  depends 
mainly  on  questions  of  magnitude,  cost,  position, 
etc.  It  is  frequently  urged  that  the  ** plenum" 
system  is  unsuitable  for  schools,  as  its  proper 
working  demands  the  windows  being  always  kept 
closed,  and  therefore  does  not  encourage  the 
pupils  to  open  the  windows  in  their  own  homes. 
This  disadvantage  can  be  partially  overcome  by 
working  the  "plenum  " system  in  the  winter  only. 
The  reverse  system — the  "  vacuum  "  or  sucking- 
out — if  less  reliable  and  thorough,  is  much  less 
costly.  "  Natural "  ventilation  is  gradually  be- 
coming better  understood ;  but  as  it  depends 
solely  on  the  air-movements  due  to  the  wind 
blowing,  and  to  the  sun  shining  on  one  side 
of  the  building  only,  the  results  are  necessarily 
extremely  variable  ;  and  not  eminently  satisfac- 
tory where  a  large  number  of  human  beings  are 
crowded  together.  In  a  school  laboratory  it  is 
often  highly  desirable  to  be  able  in  emergency  to 
get  a  strong  through-draught  by  means  of  open 
windows. 

The  walls  should  preferably  be  washable,  and 
light  in  tint ;  a  high  dado  of  glazed  bricks  or  tiles 
with  distempered  plaster  above  makes  a  suitable 


258     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

surface.  The  floor  must  admit  of  being  easily  and 
thoroughly  cleansed,  and  the  whole  length  of  every 
pipe,  drain,  or  channel  below  the  floor  must  be  very 
readily  accessible.  It  is  a  great  advantage  to  keep 
down  the  dust  on  the  floor,  and  there  are  now 
several  preparations  for  this  purpose  on  the  market. 
'•  Florigene"  was  tried,  and  reported  upon  in  the 
School  World  for  April.  The  test  is  described  as 
most  satisfactory  ;  not  only  was  the  dust  rolled  up 
in  a  layer  of  oil  and  easily  removed  during  the 
process  of  sweeping  the  floor,  but  its  rise  and 
consequent  dissemination  was  prevented  during 
school-hours.  Its  use  was  not  considered  to  entail 
any  additional  fire-risk.  It  was  noticed  the  floor 
became  somewhat  darker  in  colour  and  that 
the  oil  was  apt  to  come  off  on  any  clothes 
brought  into  contact  with  the  floor,  but  these 
effects  would  probably  somewhat  pass  off  after 
a  time ;  the  manufacturers  suggest  its  use 
three  times  a  year  only.  It  can  be  applied  to 
wood,  concrete,  stone  or  polished  floors,  or  to 
linoleum.  One  of  these  preparations  contains 
an  antiseptic.  Then  there  are  the  '*  Ronuk 
Sanitary  Polishes,"  applicable  to  all  kinds  of 
wood  floors ;  the  manufacturers  claim  that  the 
pores  of  the  wood  are  filled  up,  so  that  no 
eerms  or  dirt  are  harboured  in  the  floor- 
surface,  that  their  preparations  are  largely  com- 
posed of  antiseptic  materials  but  without  any 
disagreeable  smell,  and  that  scrubbing  is  dispensed 


bALANCL  /?C? 


f\oymctb  CHEMICAL 

L/\dORfKTORy 


T.  H.  RUSSELL 
ARCHITECT, 
INV.  &  DELT. 


^dTORL 


b 

33 

T 

^f-^ 

m 

W 

X    •" 

Qb 

SCIENCE    BUILDINGS 
FOR   SCHOOLS. 

SUGGESTED   ARRANGEMENT 

OF   CHEMICAL   AND 

PHYSICAL    LABORATORIES 

IN  A  DETACHED  BLOCK. 


B,  Bench.    BB,  Blackboard. 


APPARATU:)    ADVANCED     PMYJblCAL 
LAdORATORV 
5       0                10            20             30             40 
[+H+] 1 1 1 1 1 \ 1 1 

XALC  or  r^^T 

BK,  Books.  BS,  Balance-shelf. 


C,  Cupboard. 

D,  Desk.      DC,  Draught-closet.     FB,  Furnace-bench.      G,  Galvanometers.      P,  Pier. 
S,  Sink.       SB,  Switch-board.        SC,  Screens.  SS,  Shelves.  T,  Table. 


PLANNING  OF  SCIENCE  LABORATORIES     261 

with,  only  dry  rubbing  being  necessary  after  the 
first  appHcation. 

Now  as  to  the  arrangement  of  the  students' 
benches  in  the  chemical  laboratory.  As  a  general 
rule,  they  should  not  be  fixed  along  the  walls, 
chiefly  on  account  of  difficulty  of  proper  super- 
vision ;  draught-closets,  shelves  for  bottles  and 
balances,  combustion-benches,  cupboards,  and 
blackboards  are  better  against  the  walls. 

Work-benches  are  single  (about  two  feet  six 
inches  wide)  or  double  (four  feet  six  inches  to  five 
feet  wide) ;  in  the  latter  case  half  the  students  face 
one  way  and  half  the  other,  but  these  double  benches 
are  obviously  more  economical  of  floor-space  ;  the 
gangways  should  be  at  least  five  feet  wide,  so  that 
the  teacher  may  be  able  to  pass  between  the  two 
rows  of  students.  Dr.  R.  W.  Stewart  has  most 
carefully  worked  out  a  set  of  formulae  for  the  best 
dimensions  of  the  room  to  secure  economy  of  floor- 
space  (see  School  World,  January,  1905).  There 
should  be  a  floor-area  of  thirty  to  thirty-six  square 
feet  per  student,  including  all  gangways,  etc.  Each 
worker,  or  pair  of  workers,  if  they  work  in  twos,  will 
want  from  three  feet  six  inches  to  four  feet  length  of 
bench.  The  demonstrator's  table  is  usually  some- 
what raised  above  the  floor-level,  and  there  should 
be  sufficient  space  in  front  for  the  students  to  be 
able  to  stand  round  to  see  an  experiment,  etc. 
The  bench-tops  are  thirty-four  to  thirty-six 
inches  high  with  cupboards  and  drawers  below 


262     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

(to  contain  the  apparatus,  etc.,  entrusted  to  the 
workers),  a  separate  set,  if  possible,  for  each  class. 
There  should  be  a  sink,  gas  and  water  taps, 
rubbish-tray,  and  perhaps  electric-current  terminals 
within  reach  at  each  bench-place,  but  the  working 
space  should  not  be  hampered  with  partitions, 
tiers  of  shelves,  etc.,  although  a  small  draught-hood 
or  enclosure  is  convenient.  Small  strongly  made 
balances  may  be  provided  for  each  student,  but 
the  delicate  ones  are  best  kept  in  a  separate 
adjacent  room,  or  at  any  rate  in  enclosures  fixed 
against  the  wall  of  the  laboratory  (preferably  at 
a  distance  from  the  draught-closets).  It  is  often 
said  the  balance-room  should  not  be  entered  direct 
out  of  the  chemical  laboratory,  as  the  fumes  from 
it  are  injurious  to  the  balances.  On  the  other  hand, 
youthful  students  are  apt  to  spend  too  long  there 
talking  and  wasting  time  if  it  is  not  under  the 
direct  control  of  the  teacher  ;  sometimes  a  window 
or  glazed  screen  can  be  arranged  so  as  to  over- 
come this  disadvantage.  Also  on  account  of  the 
acid  fumes  in  the  laboratory,  metal-work  should 
be  avoided  or  reduced  in  amount  as  far  as  possible  ; 
this  refers  especially  to  drawer-knobs,  gas  taps, 
etc.,  usually  seen  in  a  corroded  and  unsightly  con- 
dition. Bronzed  ironmongery  stands  better  than 
polished  brass. 

In  laboratories  and  science-rooms  there  is  a 
greater  fire-risk  than  in  the  other  rooms  in  school 
buildings,    hence   special   precautions   should  be 


PLANNING  OF  SCIENCE  LABORATORIES     263 

maintained  to  ensure  the  prevention  of  fire.  Last 
year  the  London  County  Council  issued  the 
following  revised  regulations  on  this  subject  : — 

REGULATIONS    FOR    THE    PREVENTION    OF    FIRE 
IN    LABORATORIES    AND    SCIENCE-ROOMS. 

(i)  When  the  laboratory  is  in  use,  an  adult  teacher  must 
always  be  in  charge; 

(2)  In  laboratories  which  are  used  only  by  day  scholars,  the 
head  master  or  head  mistress  must  have  the  custody  of  the 
key,  which  must  not  be  left  finally  in  the  possession  of 
the  laboratory  monitor  after  the  close  of  the  school ; 

(3)  When  there  are  evening  classes  a  second  key  is  provided, 
which  must  be  in  the  custody  of  the  responsible  teacher ; 

(4)  The  person  in  charge,  at  the  time  of  leaving,  must 
satisfy  himself  that  all  taps  are  turned  off; 

(5)  Charcoal  that  has  been  heated  must  be  placed  in 
galvanised  sheet-iron  boxes,  which  must  always  be  closed 
when  not  in  use,  and  which  should  be  mounted  on  asbestos 
or  stone  slabs ; 

(6)  No  unauthorised  person  must  be  permitted  to  enter  the 
laboratory  when  it  is  not  in  use  ; 

(7)  The  receiver  of  the  waste  from  the  sinks  must  be  care- 
fully cleaned  out  at  least  once  a  week ; 

(8)  Inflammable  liquids  (such  as  waste  alcohol,  methylated 
spirits,  ether)  must  not  be  poured  down  the  sinks ; 

(9)  Very  great  care  must  be  taken  when  using  sodium, 
potassium,  or  phosphorus  (or  when  cleaning  out  bottles  which 
have  contained  these  substances),  to  avoid  dropping  and  losing 
small  pieces  about  the  laboratory ; 

(10)  Sodium,  potassium,  and  phosphorus  must  not  be  kept 
with  other  chemicals  in  the  laboratory,  but  must  be  in  the 
custody  of  the  head  teacher,  who  is  responsible  for  keeping 
them  in  a  locked  compartment,  of  which  he  alone  must  retain 
the  key.     Special  lockers  are  supplied  for  this  purpose  ; 


i 


264     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING  j 

I 

(11)  When  evening  classes  are  held  in  the  same  laboratory,  i 
another  supply  of  these  materials  must  be  similarly  retained 
in  the  custody  of  the  evening-school  teacher  ; 

(12)  All  bottles  containing  dangerous  chemicals  should  be  [ 
distinctly  marked ;  j 

(13)  The  school-keeper  must  make  a  round  of  inspection 
every  night  after  work  is  over  in  the  laboratory,  in  order  to  1 
make  certain  that  all  taps  are  turned  off,  and  that  there  is  no  \ 
danger  of  fire ;  i 

(14)  For  the  prompt  treatment  of  burns  and  acid  wounds,  : 
a  bottle  of  carron  oil  should  be  kept  ready  for  use  in  each  ; 
laboratory  or  science-room.  j 

JV,B. — These  regulations  are  to  be  printed  in  large  type,  | 

mounted  on  cardboard,  and  hung  in  a  conspicuous  place  in  ] 

the  laboratory.  i 

The  draught-closets  are  very  important  fittings  i 

in   a   chemical   laboratory.      If  there   are   small  j 

draught-hoods  or  enclosures  on  the  benches,  as  , 

already  mentioned,  one  closet  to  every  eight  or  i 

ten   bench-places    is    generally   found   sufficient,  ; 

otherwise   the   proportion    should   be   somewhat  | 
larger.     These  closets   should   be   two    feet  six 

inches   to    three   feet   long  and  about   nineteen  j 
inches   deep,   with   gas    laid   on    inside.      Great 

care   should  be  taken   to   obtain  a  reliable  and  ; 
rapid  extraction   of  the   air  in  the   closets   that 
is  not  readily  reversed  by  the  general  ventilation 

of  the  room.     A  gas-burner  (not  necessarily  a  \ 

Bunsen  burner)  placed  within  a  vertical  flue  or  | 

pipe  is  the  simplest  way  of  obtaining  independent  1 
action  ;  the  fullest  advantage  is  then  taken  of  the 

heat  from  evaporations  conducted  in  the  closet,  i 


PLANNING  OF  SCIENCE  LABORATORIES     265 

Now  that  electric  current  is  becoming  more  and 
more  readily  obtainable,  a  small  fan  or  blower  is 
often  adopted  for  this  work.  Where  a  number 
of  flues  or  ducts  are  grouped  together,  special 
care  must  be  taken  to  equalise  the  extraction  by 
graduating  their  sizes.  The  various  methods  of 
dealing  with  the  ventilation  of  both  draught- 
closets  and  the  laboratories  themselves  were  fully 
dealt  with  in  a  paper  given  by  the  writer  in 
January,  1904,  and  published  in  abstract  in  the 
building  papers  {Builder,  for  Feb.  5,  and  Architect, 
etc.,  for  Feb.  12). 

The  pros  and  cons  of  the  question  of  combining 
the  laboratory  and  the  lecture-room  into  one 
room  cannot  be  discussed  here,  but  it  will  be 
obvious  that  with  a  few  modifications  the  labora- 
tory can  be  easily  made  suitable  for  a  certain 
amount  of  lecturing  or  demonstrating,  in  addition 
to  the  regular  practical  work.  One  lecture-room 
is  usually  made  to  serve  for  both  the  chemical 
and  physical  departments.  The  lecture-table  can 
hardly  be  too  long ;  plenty  of  space  must  be 
reserved  for  working  the  lantern  which  is  now  so 
largely  used  for  lecture  purposes  as  to  be  con- 
sidered quite  indispensable.  A  straight  rake  for 
the  seats  is  generally  adopted ;  the  correct  step- 
ping of  the  seats  on  a  hollow  or  isacoustic  curve 
to  ensure  for  each  student  an  uninterrupted  view 
of  the  experiments  is  not  so  usual. 

Only  the  briefest  space  is  left  for  reference  to 


266     BROAD   LINES   IN   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

physical  laboratories.  For  physical  work,  what 
is  most  required  is  plenty  of  space  both  on  the 
bench  and,  at  other  times,  between  them.  Free- 
dom from  all  vibration  is  much  more  necessary 
here  than  in  chemical  laboratories,  and  so  is 
dryness  for  the  apparatus.  Certain  of  the  opera- 
tions demand  particularly  good  light.  As  already 
mentioned,  the  laboratories  are  often  on  an  upper 
floor  in  secondary  schools,  but  sufficient  steadi- 
ness can  generally  be  obtained  up  there  for  the 
class  of  physical  work  that  would  be  undertaken 
in  these  school  laboratories.  For  all  but  very 
elementary  work  it  is  most  convenient  to  have 
several  tables  that  can  without  much  difficulty  be 
moved  about  the  laboratory.  In  advanced  labora- 
tories it  is  usual  to  provide  some  particularly  firm 
supports  into  the  construction  of  which  wood  does 
not  enter ;  these  are  for  work  with  instruments 
that  require  to  be  accurately  levelled  and  adjusted; 
they  are  generally  slate  or  stone  slabs,  supported 
on  brick  or  concrete  piers,  or  built  into  the  walls. 
For  school  laboratories  the  floor-area  per  student 
(including  gangways,  etc.)  may  be  reckoned  at 
about  thirty  square  feet,  but  forty  is  advisable  if 
all  the  apparatus  is  stored  in  the  room. 

A  dark  room  is  a  necessity,  not  only  for  pho- 
tography, but  also  for  optical  work.  One  can 
often  be  fitted-up  under  the  raised  seats  of  the 
lecture-room.  The  proper  ventilation  of  it  is 
frequently  overlooked ;  it  is  not  always  realised 


PLANNING  OF  SCIENCE  LABORATORIES     267 

that  light  will  not  go  round  bends  if  there  is  no 
reflecting  surface,  but  air  will  do  so. 

Some  brief  references  have  already  been  made 
to  the  provision  of  electric  current  for  experi- 
mental work.  This  is  a  subject  that  requires  the 
most  careful  consideration,  even  to  the  smallest 
detail.  Unfortunately  the  difficulties  of  the 
service  are  greatly  increased  by  the  variation  in 
voltage  of  the  current  suitable  for  the  different 
purposes.  For  experimental  work  at  the  bench 
in  chemical  and  physical  laboratories  currents  up 
to  twenty-five  volts  are  perhaps  the  most  useful, 
but  wires  carrying  heavier  currents  are  required 
for  the  arc  lantern  in  the  lecture-room,  electric 
furnaces,  etc.,  while  at  the  lecturer's  table  it  is 
convenient  to  have  both  high  and  low  tension 
terminals.  Frequently  when  a  motor  generator 
can  be  run  from  the  supply  mains,  wires  from  it 
as  well  as  from  the  storas^e  cells  are  taken  to  the 
students'  benches. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  foregoing  suggestions  and 
observations,  brief  and  incomplete  though  they 
are  obliged  to  be,  may  prove  of  some  interest  and 
assistance  to  those  who  have  new  laboratories  to 
arrange  and  equip,  or  old  ones  to  remodel. 


THE    END 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


PRINTED   BY 

WILLIAM  BRENDON  AND  SON,  LTD, 

PLYMOUTH 


> 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  50  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.00  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


DEC  ly  iy3b 


DEC  14  m*\ 


N0\/  19 


mp 


MAy  15  1Q4?? 


-m^ 


1969  oft 


NOV  81969  8  5 


"\*f 


JMftt 


/^<^7 


-BEc:^ 


^^  '69.5Pi 


!l 


^ 


^n 


'finv9  ^^^^ 


AUG  1  7  1073 


RECEiVFD 


(^I6'b9-6W 


^OAN   DEPT. 


LD  21-100m-8,'84 


04095 


/6y7 


197640 


/m. 


